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GRAMMAR 




HM^ILiriFIIlID^ 



OR, AN 



^^ 



OCULAR A^TALiYSIS 



OF THE 



ENGIilSH liANGUAGi: 



BY rf* teREENLEAF. 



TWENTIETH EDITION; 

Corrected, Enlarged, and Improved by the Author. 



STEREOTTFED BY JAMES CONNER, NEW-YORK. 



3lltattUI>oro% 2^t. 

HOLBROOK AND FEBSENDEN. 



1828. 




SQ3S£C2flrt^l 



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RECOMJUENDATIONS. 



Prom the Rev. Edward D. Oriffin, D. D. now President of Williamstown College. 

I have read, with some care, the second edition of Mr. Greenleara Grammar Simplified. There 
is nothing miraculous nor mysterious in it, nor in the effects which it is said to produce. The 
whole is comprehended in the following facts : Mr. G. has attentively studied the principles of 
English Grammar ; and, with the exception, perhaps, of a few minor details, has exhibited them 
with entire correctness. His manner of expressing them is short, lucid, and striking. He has 
brought together a greater number of principles than is found in almost any other Grammar, and 
those happily selected ; and has presented them in a naked form, disencumbered of all unneces- 
sary matter. There is nothing heavy, nothing perplexed. The arrangement is new, and strikes 
me favourably. How much is gained by this means, and particularly by speakingso much to the 
eye, I could better judge were I to see the effects exemplified in a school. Much will depend on 
the skill and adroitness of the teacher ; but I am prepared to say, let him have the lively concep- 
tion and aptness to teach, which are manifested in the compilation of this Grammar ; let him, in 
short, be Mr. Greenleaf himself, and children will be likely to become initiated sooner and more 
thoroughly upon this plan than upon any other which I have seen. 

JVewark, (JV. J.) March 29, 1821. E. D. GEIFFIN, 

Having examined Mr. GreenleaPs Grammar Sunplified, and received from his partner some ex- 
planations of his mode of instruction, I am satisfied that this system is moresimple,anabetter cal- 
culated to impart a knowledge of the subject in a shorter period of time, than any other now in use. 
Very respectfully, yours, &c. 

JVew-Brunswick, May 11, 1821. AUGUSTUS K. TAYLOR, M. D. 

We have examined, with considerable attention, a large class of pupils under the tuition of Mr. 
Chevalier, stated to have been engaged in the study of English Grammar about two months. 

The facility which these pupils manifested in dissecting and combining any sentence given them 
to parse ; the manner in which they gave the definitions, applied the rules of syntax, and raised 
objections against false construction ; discovered such a practical knowledge of the science, as is 
not commonly attained by children of their age, by the common drudgery of teaching, in years. 
The text-book in use is " Oreenleafs Grammar Simplified;" and from a perusal of the work 
itself, together with the evi.lence we have had of its superior excellence in assisting the learner 
in his progress to understand and apply every thing, thereby rendering the rudiments of Grammar 
a matter of amusement rather than labour, we are entirely of opinion, tl*it Mr. Greenleaf's book 
is by far the best adapted for learners of any that has yet appeared on the subject. The matter of 
this book is essentially the same with Murray and others ; but the arrangement is entirely origi- 
nal i the language is easy to be understood ; many difficult parts in other Grammars, (as the 
case absolute or " independent" and others,) are here rendered perfectly familiar, and some 
valuable improvements made in Syntax. 

H. J. PELTUS, A. M. 
Jifea-Tork, May 17, 1821. BENJ. T. UNDERDONK, A. M. 

' — « 

Greenleaf's " Grammar Simplified" we consider as deserving publick attention and patronage, 
because it redeems the pledge given in the title. 

JOHN B» ROMEYN, D. D. 
ALEX. ft'LEOD, D. D. 
^. LEWIS, A. M. 

MR. .STARR. vP 

Dear Sir — I have been able to give but a cursory perusal to Greenleaf's Grammar : but I have 
seen enough ofit to convince me that it deserves the title of" Grammar Simpii^ed." For a begin- 
ner, I think it the best book of the kind which I ever met with. Asfaras the nature of thecase will 
admit, 'thasreducedthe elementary principles of Grammar into the form of a chart ; and thus, not 
only aids the memory of the pupil, but makes him, at one view, see the bearing of the several 
parts of speech on each other. I wish well to your efl'ort to give the book a general circulation. 
Yours, sir, respectfully, 

JVew-rm-fc, Sept. 11,1821. J. M. MATHEWS, A. M, 



I have examined " Oreenleafs Grammar Simplified," and cheerfully subscribe to the senti- 
ments expressed by Mr. Mathews in the above recommendation: 
JVew- York, Sept. 18, 1821. G. SPRING, D. D. 

I have given considerable attention to Mr. GreenleaPs System of Grammar, and have had the 
pleasure to witness it in operation among a class of young pupils. For such, I consider it deci- 
dedly the best book of Grammar with which I am acquainted. One of its peculiar excellencies is 
this, that the learners appear to view the study of it, in a class, as a pleasing amusement, and 
not, as is the case with that of the old systems, an intolerable drudgery. 

JVew-York, Sept. 14, 1821. J. NITCHIE. 

From t'le Rev. Frederick Beasley, D. D. President of the University of Pennsylvania. 

I have examined the plan cf teaching Grammar drawn up by Mr. Greenleaf, and agree with 
those who have given their testimony in its favour. It is the best system 1 have seen for the 
use of elementary schools, such as those in which young ladies and young men are prepared for 
the higher branches of study. It is not intended to supersede the study of Murray, or any other 
larger Grammar which may be preferred in colleges or higher schools ; but only to become pre- 
paratory to them with young persons, or those who do not expect to obtain a liberal education. 
Under this view of the subject, I can decidedly recommend the Grammar of Mr. Greenleaf as 
the best I have ever seen. 

University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Dec. 1, 1821. FREDERICK BEASLEY. 

At the request ofMr.Carpenter,I have read Mr. Greenleaf's "Grammar Simplified," and have 
been gratified by the perusal of it. I am not sufficiently conversant with the generally approved 
course of teaching English Grammar, to place entire confidence in any opinion I may form of a 
treatise intended to alter that course ; especially without the aid afforded by observing its practical 
operation and effect. So far as I can trust a judgment formed without that aid, I think the Gram- 
mar offered to the publick by Mr. G. well adapted to its professed purpose. Its arrangement is 
clear and methodical ; its rules and examples seem to be correct and well selected; it is so con- 
densed as not to charge tlie memory with any useless burthen, while it contains, I think, what is 
necessary togivethestudentajust conception of the mechanism and organization of our language. 
The very respectable names by which this work has been recommended, do not require the addi- 
tion of mine ; but, at the request of Mr. C. I cheerfully subscribe to the opinions they have given. 

Richmond, Jan. 1822. J. MARSHALL, [Chief Justice.] 

1 have perused "Grammar Simplified," and seen something of its practical application in a 
school. I judge it to be well calculated to facilitate and expedite the acquisition of English 
Grammar. JOHN D. BLAIR, D. D. 



I have looked through the little work called "Grammar Simplified," and am of opinion that it is 

well calculated for communicating.inashorttime.a knowledge of theelementsofEnglishGramiuar. 

Jan. 15 1822. JOHN H. RICE, D. D. 



4^ 



v 






"^ 



I regard Mr. GreenleaTs little treatise, entitled " Grammar Simplified," as calculated to re- 
move much of the usual labour and obscurity from the study of the science it is designed to teach ; 
and, consequently, to recommend that science in the same proportion, to the taste of learners— 
of mere beginners especially. Whilst I am not prepared to affirm that Mr. G.'s work has intro- 
duced any hidden principle of science, or that it exhibits a philosophical analysis of language, I 
cannot doubt that it is an instrument which, in the hands of competent instructers, may and will 
be productive of rapid and extensive advantages. 

on„ p. V. DANIEL, 

Richmond, Jan. 21, 1822. [Lieut. Governor of firginia.'} 

We, the undersigned, having examined Mr. GreenleaPs " Grammar simplified," and received 
from Mr. Carpenter some explanations of his mode of instruction, are thoroughly convinced that 
his system is more simple, and is calculated to impart a knowledge of grammar with more &- 
cility, and, in a much shorter lune, than any other now in use. 

JOHN BUCHANAN, D. D. 
THOS. M. RANDOLPH, 
[Governor of Virginia.'\ 
REV. J. H. TURNER, Preceptor. 

I have, with considerable attention, examined "Grammar Simplified," &c. by J. Greenleaf, 
Esq. and am much pleased to find the drudgery, usually attendant on an attempt to acquire a 
knowledge of this branch of literature, in his compend in a great measure removed. I consider 
it not only the most unexceptionable, but really the best system of Grammar, formed on the Latin 
model, which has heretofore met my eye. But let the worth of theories and systems be tested 
by their practical usefulness, and let them be appreciated accordingly. I must confess, I never 
witnessed such attainments from a course of eighteen lessons, as were those of my friend, Mr. 
M'Clintock's little son, of only seven years ; wTio had been taught by Mr. Greenleaf, on the plan 
of his Grammar, and who was examined, by his father's request, in my presence. This is prac- 
tical demonstration. " Let works bear witness." 1 most cordially recommend both the Gram- 
mar and the Author to a liberal and enlightened publick, to whose patronage they are, in aliigh 
degree, entitled. SAMUEL B. WYLIE, D. D. 

[Professor of the Latin, Greek, and Btbrew Langunges, and 

Philadelphia, Jlpril 29, 1822. late Professor in the University of Pemisylvania.] 

Dear Sir — With the Rev. Dr. Wylie, I most cheerfully concur in an unequivocal recommenda- 
tion of your "Grammar Simplified," &c. and view it entitled to universal patronage, for rea- 
sons the most self-evident. The pleasurable witnessing I had of its worth, on application, from 
an examination of a number of your amiable female pupils, induces me, without hesitation, to, 
express my full accordance with the Rev. Dr. Beasley, and the numerous other competent judges, 
in attesting its superior excellency. In anticipation of a mode of instruction, combining the 
"utile cum dulci," speedily taking place of all others, hitherto in painful practice, I do most 
heartily congratulate you. WILLIAM ROGERS, D. D. 

[Quondam Professor of English, Sjc. in tht 
University of Pennsylvania.^ 

J. GREENLEAF, ESa. 

Sir — After having thoroughly examined your "Grammar Simplified," I have not the least hesi- 
tation in saying, that it possesses a decided preference over all other Grammars extant. But this 
is really doing injustice to its merits. To say that your system of Grammar is pre-eminent to all 
others, is too indefinite. It is pre-eminent, in pointof facility, in a eery Aio-A degree. Simplified 
as it is, however, it will undoubtedly have to encounter much prejudice from the superficial and 
malevolent ; especially from ignorant and pedantick schoolmasters : for I perceive it is impossi- 
ble for any one to teach from your plan, unless he know something of Grammar himself ; as the 
pupil commences parsing immediately, and "m'akes the application of every thing as he goes 
along." Whereas, from other systems, it is a very easy matter for teachers, who know nothing 
of Grammar themselves, to keep their pupils drilling, year after year, in Grammar, tliat :s to say, 
in committing the rules, definitions, &c. Hence it is to be expected, that many teachers will 
keep the book out of their schools as long as possible. But a cursory perusal of the work is suf- 
ficient to convince the judicious and discerning, that it is what it professes to be, " Grammar 
Simplified," and that it is an invaluable acquisition to literature. 

Truly, and with sincere gratulations, your's, 
WILLIAM MANN, 

Philadelphia, May 4, 1822. [Professor of the Latin, Greek, ana Hebrew Languuges.'] 

We, the undersigned, having witnessed the examination of a number of Mr. GreenleaPs pu- 
pils, after they had attended the very short course which he thinks necessary to give, viz. six- 
teen lessons, hesitate not to say, that the proficiency of his pupils exceedingly surpassed every 
thing we had conceived, in regard to facility in the acquisition of Grammatical learning. 

The unthought-of pleasantness of the path to this very useful attainment, struck oat by Mr. 
Greenleaf, constitutes a prominent characteristick of the pre-eminence of his system of tuition. 
Mr. GreenletiPs method possesses one peculiarity , which affords singular advantages. The car, 
as well as the eye, is continually, and yet agreeably, impressed by the subject. A surprising ex- 
emplification of the foregoing remarks was presented in the case of a pupil of Mr. Greenleaf, who 
was blind. The knowledge of Etymology and Syntax, evinced in the examination of this in- 
teresting pupil, who had attended the usual course of lessons, was, in the estimation of many 
spectators, an ample demonstration ofthe superior advantages of Mr. GreenleaPs plan. 

JAMES ROSS, A. M. 
[Author of Ross's Greek and Latin Grammar, 
Vocabulary, SfX. ^c.\ 
REV. DR. THOMAS DUNN. 
REV. JAMES SMITH. 
REV. WILLIAM SMITH. 
DR. CHARLES W. PARISH. 



Philadelphia, April, 2, 1822. 

I have perused the work entitled "Grammar Simplified," by Mr. Greenleaf. It is precisely 
what it declares itself, "An Ocular Analysis of the English Language." It is scarcely possible 
to enter the temple of Grammatical knowledge, by a more easy, or a more beautiful inlet. In 
my judgment, the internal merit of the work must ensure its circulation. 

WM. STAUGIfTON, 
May 25, 1822. [President ofthe Columbian College, in the 

District qf Columbia.^ 



From the Rev. Dr. Ahercrombie, author of a System of Graramar. 

I have examined, with much satisfaction, Mr. GreenleaPs "Grammar Simplified," and hesi- 
tate not to recommend it to Teachers, as well as juvenile Students, as giving much facility to 
the acquisition of that necessary and useful art. 

Philadelphia, Feb. 27, 18-.H. JAMES ABERCROMBIE, D. D. 

fjifFor other Recommendations, see the Cover. 



SOUTHER^r DISTRICT OF J^-EW-YORIC, ss. 

(L H \ BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the tenth day of September, in the forty-sixth year ofthe Independence ofthe United States of America, Jeremiah Greenleaf of the said 

■" district, hath deposited in this ofiicethe title of a book, the right wlierof he claims us author, in the words following, to wit : 

" Grammar Simplified; or, an Ocular Analysis ofthe English Language. By J. Greenllnf. , Third F.ditioni Corrected, enlarged, and improved, by tht Author." 

In conformiiv lo the Act ofthe Congress ofthe United States, entitled "An Act for the encouragement, of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and pro- 
prietors of such topics, during the time therein mciitioned." And also to an Act, entitled " An Art, supplementary to an Act, entitled an Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing 
the copies of maps, <-||„rLs, and books, to the nulliorB and proprietors of such copies, duiing the times therein mentioned," and extending Uie benefits thereof lo the arts of designing, engraving, 
and etching historical and oilier nrints." 

' JAMES DILL, 

ClerA ofthe Southern District of JVctr-York. 



mm 



PREFACE, 



NOTWITHSTANDING the numerous publications upon English Grammar, and the ability 
with which many of them are written, it is a fact, which I believe few will deny, that this science 
has never yet been so simfjnfied, as to render the study of it, at once concise, easy, and inviting. 



From experience in teaching this branch of learning, I was first led to believe, that a correct 
knowledge of the Grammar of the English Language might be obtained, in one tenth part of the 
time usually occupied in the attainment of it ; and that, instead of a long, dry, and irksome study, 
it might be made, not only a very short, but a most agreeable and interesting one. With these 
impressions, I have constructed a grammar upon a plan entirely new, which concisely embodies 
all the general rules and principles, and which presents to the eye of the learner, in a simple and 
perspicuous manner, the whole field of this important branch of education. 

In selecting materials for the work, I have consulted Harris, Lowth, Priestley, Johnson, 
Sheridan, Home Tooke, Webster, and Murray ; and, in constructing it, have endeavoured to 
render it plain and intelligible to the lowest capacity ; and to obviate every difficulty or obscurity 
that might tend, in the least degree, to embarrass or perplex the mind of the learner. 

In short, I am positive, that this treatise is calculated to impart a knowledge of Grammar with 
more facility, and in a much shorter time, than any other system heretofore published. With hum- 
ble confidence, therefore, I present " Chrammar Simplified''^ to an enlightened publick. 

THE AUTHOR. 
New-York, September, 1821. 



^A 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 



PAGE. 



Preface 3 

Key, or Method of Instruction 7 

Definitions of the Parts of Speech . . . 8 
Parsing Lesson 1 in the Indicative Mood . 8 
Ditto 2 " Subjunctive Mood , 10 

Ditto 3 " Potential Mood . . 12 

Ditto 4 " Infinitive Mood -. .14 

Ditto 5 " Imperative Mood • 16 

Ditto 6 to 12 Promiscuous 

Exercises . . . . . 10, 12, 14, 16 
Moods and Tenses .... 9, 11, 13, 15, 17 
Conjugation of Verbs . . . 9,11,13,15,17 
DeclensionofNouns and Pronouns 9, 11, 13, 15, 17 
Rules of Syntax .... 9, 11, 13, 15, 17 
A List of the Pronominal Ad- ) 

jectives, and the compari- > 9, 11, 13, 15, 17 
son of Adjectives ) ' ^ 

PART n. 

OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. . . , . 18 

Orthography 18 

Of the sounds of the Letters . . . .18 
OfSylIables,andthe rules for arrangingthem20 
Of Words in general, and the rules for 

Spelling them 20 

Etymology 21 

Of Articles . . . . ' 21 

Of Nouns 21 

Gender 21 

Person 22 

Number 22 

Case 22 



Of Pronouns Personal and Relative . . 22 

Of Adjectives 23 

Of Verbs 24 

Number and Person 24 

Moods 24 

Tenses 25 

Conjugations 25 

General Remarks on the Moods and 

Tenses, and the inflection of Verbs : 27 

Catalogue of irregular verbs .... 28 

Ditto defAjtive ditto .... 29 

Of Participles 29 

Of Adverbs 30 

Of Prepositions 30 

Of Conjunctions 30 

Of Interjections 31 

Of Derivation 31 

Syntax 32 

Rules and Notes 32 

Specimens of Syntactical Parsing ... 39 

Remarks on the Ellipsis 40 

Prosody ..... 41 

Punctuation 41 

Directions respecting the use of the Capi- 
tal Letters 42 

Exercises in Punctuation 42 

False Grammar, adapted to the Rules of 

Orthography 43 

False Grammar, adapted to the Rules of 

Syntax 45 

False Grammar, adapted to the Notes under 

the Rules of Syntax .46 

False Grammar, adapted to the Rules of 
Syntax and their Notes, promiscuously 
disposed % ... 47 



APPENDIX. 



Of Versification 49 

Pauses 49 

Rhetoric and Oratory 49 

Tropes, or Figures of Speech . . . ' . . . .50 
Composition 50 



A KEY TO 

"GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED." 

THE names of parts of speech are designated by their initials; thus, at stands for article, n for noun, 7>ro for pronoun, &c. (See the bottom of this page.) 
On page 8, are the definitions of the parts of speech, and on the margin of pages 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16, are parsing lessons, adapted to the several moods and 

tenses. The moods, tenses, and the conjugation of the verbs, together with the rules of syntax, the declension of nouns and pronouns, a list of the pronominal 

adjectives, and the comparison of adjectives, are respectively sxhibited on the right-hand pages of the parsing lessons. 

METHOD OF INSTRUCTION. 

The first thing which the learner has to do, and the only thing preparatory for parsing, is to become acquainted with the names of the parts of speech, and the 
letters which stand for them, as exhibited at the bottom of this page. When this is done, which will require but a few minutes, he will be enabled, with perfect 
facility, to commence parsing, in the following manner. (See page 8.) 

ar n V 

A man loves. 



Instructer. Pupil. 

What part of speech is o.^ An article. 

What is an article ? ' An article is a word placed before noims 

to limit their signification. 

What kind .' The indefinite. 

Why ? The indefinite article limits the noun to 

one of a kind, &c. • 

What does it belong to .' It belongs to man. 

Give the rule Rule 3, Articles and adjectives belong 

to nouns, &c. 

What part of speech is man? A noun. 

What is a noun .' A noun is a word which is the name of 

any person, place, or thing. 

What kind ? Common. 

Why .' ■ Common noims are the names of whole 

sorts or species. 

What gender .' . The masculine. 

Why ? The masculine gender denotes males. 

What person .' . . ; The third. 

Why ? The third person denotes the person or 

thing spoken of. 

What number ? The singular. 

Why? The singular number denotes but one 



object. 
In the same manner with all the parts of speech. The instructer must refer his pupils, in the first place, to the definitions^ rules, &c< 
a distance from them, when they commence parsing, and take the following method. 



Instructer. Pdpii,. 

What case ? The nominative. 

Why ? The nominative case is the actor, &e. 

Nominative to what ? To the verb loves. 

Give the rule Rule 1, The nominative case governs 

the verb. 

What part of speech is loves? A verb. 

What is a verb .' A verb is a word which expresses action 

or being. 

What kind of a verb .' Active. 

Why ? An active verb denotes action or energy 

which terminates on some object. 

Is it regular, or irregular ? Regular. 

Why ? Regular verbs are those which form the 

imperfect tense, &c. 

What mood ? Indicative. 

Why .' : The Indicative mood simply indicates or 

declares a thing, or asks a question. 

What tense .' Present. 

Why ? The present tense denotes present time. 

What person and number ? Third person, singular number. 

What does it agree with for its nomi- 
native ? It agrees with man. • 

Give the rule Rule 2, The verb must agree with, &c. 

He can, if he please, be at 



.A n V 

Charles writes. 

Instructer. Pupil. 

What part of speech is Ckarle* .?....-....... ..-A noun. 

What is a noun ? ---.--•--••---•.-.. ..--A noun is a word which is the name of any person, place, or thing. 

It is a proper noun — ^Why.' '•---•----..--.... Proper nouns are the names of individuals. 

The masculine gender — Why ?------•---...... The masculine gender denotes males. 

Tliird person — Why ?-..--------..-..-.... The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of. . 

As soon as the learner becomes sufficiently initiated into the subject to enable him to parse without giving the definitions, (and the first lesson is always suiB- 
cient for this purpose,) he may omit them -and parse in the usual way : and, after going through with the several marked lessons, he may commence at Promiscuous 
Exercises, Parsing Lesson 2. It is necessary, however, that the definitions, rules, &c. be, eventually, thoroughly committed to memory. 

The most important thing in teaching is, that the mind of the learner be perfectly free and unembarrassed ; much, therefore, depends on the teacher. Many 
examples are left for him to supply. He should endeavour to give his pupils an idea of the parts of speech by as simple means as possible ; and should make such 
illustrations as may, at any time, be deemed necessary. It is generally allowed, that a pupil will learn more from the mouth of an able instructer, than from 
books. As a relaxation, the class should be occasionally exercised in conjugating the verbs, declining the nouns and pronouns, comparing the adjectives, &c. 

N. B. The learner should be made to understand, as soon as possible, the use of the different forms or personal terminations of verbs, as exhibited on the right-hand pages of the parsing lessons; so 
that he may fcaow what is meant, by mailing the verb agree with its nominative in number and person. 

WALKER'S KEY TO THE 

1. k The long slender English a, as in file, pi-per, &c. 

2. i The long Italian a, as in (kr, fi-ther, pa-pi, mam-mi. 

3. i The broad German a, as in tkW, will, wi-ter. 

4. 3. The short sound of the Italian a, as in fit, mit, mir-ry. 

1. & The long e, as in mh, hire, mi-tre, mi-dium. 

2. i The short e, as in m^t, lit, gh. 

1. i The long diphthongal i, as in pine, tl-tle. 

2. i The short simple i, as in pin, tit-tie. 

1. A The long open o, as in n6, nAte, nA-tice. 

2. 5 The long close o, as in m&ve, prAve. 



SOUJ^TDS OF THE VOWELS. 

3. 6 The long broad o, as in n&r, f3r, Ar ; like the broad i. 

4. 6 The short broad o, as in n6t, h6t, g6t. 

1. A The long diphthongal u, as in tibe, ci-pid. 

2. 6. The short simple u, as in tSb, c6p, sup. ^ 

3. fi. The middle or obtuse u, as in bill, fill, pull. 
Ai. The long broad A, and the short i, as in Ail. 

Ai. The long broad A, and the middle obtuse u, as in thou, pAond. 

771. The acute or sharp th, as in think, thin. 
Th. The grave or flat th, as in Tiiis, THat. 






ENOIilJSH GRAMMAR. 

Grammar is the art of speaking and writing correctly. 

ar n pro a _ V J* 

There are, in English, ten sorts of words, or, as they are commonly called, parts of speech ; viz. the Article, Noun, Pronoun, 'Adjective, Verb, PaMCiple, 
ad pr c i 

Adterb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection. 



PARSING LESSON 1. 

ar n v'' 
A man loves, 
ar n ▼ 
The boys study, 
ar a n t 
A good girl learns. 

n V n 

Harriet loves Eliza. 
n V ar n 

Charles writes a letter. 

n V ar n 

Charles wrote a letter. 

n V ar n 

Charles has written a letter. 

n V ar n 

Charles had written a letter. 

n . V ar n 

Charles will write a letter. 

n V ar n 

Charles will have written a letter. 

ar n v pr n 
The girls play in school. 

ar n pr n v ar n 
The paths of virtue are the paths 
pr n 
of peace. 

ar a n v n pr 

A good man worships God with 
a n 

humble confidence. 

n n pa a pr ai 

Cesar's troops, being eager for an 
n V ad pr ar n 

onset, rushed furiously on the foe. 
n ad V pa 

Men are often found transgressing 
ar n 
the laws, 
pro y c V pr pro n 

I will arise, and go to my father, 
c V pr pro n pro 

and will say unto him ; Father, I 

V pr n c 

have sinned against Heaven, and 

pr pro 
before thee. 



V 

was 






Newton, the philosopher, 



great astronomer. 

n V ad pro a n 

Esther put on her royal apparel. 
Pfo V n pr ar n pr 

She obtained favour in the sight of 
ar n 
the king. 

n pa pr n v pro 

Money, taken by fraud, betrays its 
n 
possessor. 

ar n pro pro v pr n 

The ladies, whom we saw at court, 
ad V 

were genteely dressed. 

n V ar n 

Henry had received the news 
ad ar n v 

before the messenger arrived. 



n a V ar n pro 

General, this is the sword which 
pro V pro 
you gave nle. 

ar n pro pro ad 

A letter, which we have just 
V V pro ar n 

received, gives us an answer. 

a V pr n pro ad 

Some talk of subjects they do not 
V a V n 

understand ; others praist virtue, 
jro ad V pro 

who do not practise it. 

ar n v pr ar n 

The men were tried by the court, 
a pr pro 



and «ach of them was fined, 
pro ad V i 

I haye often been occupied, alaa ! 
pr i 
with tribes. 

' _ » ad a V pro 

O ! virtue, how amiable art thou ! 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 

ARTICLE. 

An Article is a word placed before nouns to limit their signification. 
There are two articles, a or an, and the. A or an is called the indefinite article. Tht Is called the definite article 
The indefinite article limits the noun to one of a kind, but, generally, to no particular one. 
The definite article limits the noun to one or more particular objects. 

A Noun is a word which is the name of any person, place, or thing. 
Nouns are of two kinds, common and proper. 
Common nouns are the names of whole sorts or species. 

Proper nouns are the names of individuals. To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case. 
GENDER is the distinction of sex. There are three genders, the masculine, feminine, and neuter. 
The masculine gender denotes males 
The feminine gender denotes females. 
The neuter gender denotes things without sex. 

PERSOJf is the quaUty of the noun which modifies the verb. There are three persons, the first, second, and third. 
The first person denotes the person speaking. 
The second person denotes the person or thing spoken to. 

The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of. Nouns have but two persons, the second and third 
NUMBER is the distinction of one from many. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and plural. 
The singular number denotes but one object. *> 

The plural numher denotes more objects than one. 
CASE is the different state or situation of nouns with regard to other words. Nouns have three cases, the nominative, 

possessive, and objective. 
The nominative case is the actor, or subject of the verb. It generally comes before the verb. 
The possessive case denotes property or possession. It is generally formed by adding s to a noun with an apostrophe ; thus, 

" John's book." When the plural ends in s the apostrophe only is added ; as, " On eagles' wings." 
The objective case is the object on which the action of a. verb or participle terminates, or the object of a preposition. It 

generally comes after the verb. 

PROJ^OUJ^. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same wosd. 

There ate two kinds of Pronouns, personal and relative. 

Personal pronouns stand immediately for the name of some person or thing. 

Relative pronouns relate directly to some noun or personal pronoun, called the antecedent. They are who, whose, whom, 
which, what, and that. All pronouns, except the relatives, are personal. The same that belong to nouns, belong also to 
pronouns. They have three persons : Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, he, she, it. 

ADJECTIVE. 

An Adjective is a word which expresses some quality or property of a noun. 
Pronominal adjectives are those which are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as pronouns; 
Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They have three degrees of comparison, the Positive, 

Comparative, and Superlative. 
The positive degree expresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution ; as, wise, great, good. 
The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in signification ; as, wiser, greater, less wise. 
The superlative degree increases or lessens ' -o in the highest or lowest degree ; as, wisest, greatest, least wise. 

Some adjectives do not admit of comparison , -^j ^■'■i-^j , perfect, supreme, Six. 

VERB. 

A Verb is a word which expresses action or being. 
Verbs are of three kinds; active, passive, and neuter. They are also" divided into regular, irregular, and defective. 
An active verh denotes action or energy which terminates on some object. 
A passive verh denotes action received, or endured, by the person or thing which is the nominative. It is formed by adding 

the perfect participle of an active verb to the verb he through all its various changes of number, person, mood, and tense. 
A neuter verh denotes simple being or existence, or it denotes action which is limited to the subject. 
Regular verbs are those whose imperfect tense and perfect participle end in ed. 
Irregular verbs are those whose imperfect tense and perfect participle do not end in ed. All monosyllables are irregulars, 

unless cornpounded. 
Defective verbs are those wliich arc used only in some of their moods and tenses. To verbs belong mood, tense, number, 

and person. 

PARTICIPLE. ' 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of the verb, adjective, and noun. 
Participles are of two kinds, present and perfect. 

The present participle denotes present time, and generally ends in ing, as loving. 

The perfect participle denotes past time, and, in regular verbs, corresponds exactly with the imperfect tense ; as, loved. 
The union of two or more participles is, sometimes, called a compound participle ; as, having loved. 
Participles, like verbs, have an active, passive, and neuter signification. 

ADVERB. 

An AnvEigj is a word used to qualify the sense of verbs, participles, and adjectives ; and, sometimes, of other adverba. 
Some adverbrudmit of comparison; as, score, sooner, soonest 

PREPOSITIOJ^. 

A Preposition is a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them. 

cojTju^rcTioj^. 

A Conjunction is a word that is, chiefly, used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sentenoes into one Oom« 
pound one. It, sometimes, connects only words. 



IKTERJECTIOJ^. 

An Interjection is a word used to express passion or emotion ; usually that which is violent or sudden ; aa, 0aa! 
Ah! Hush! Lo! Fie! 0! Belvold! 



OhJ 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 

MOOD is the manner of representing action or being. 
The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 



Present Tense 
denotes present time. 

TENSE 

is the division of time. 

Singular number. 
1. 1 love, 
a 2. Thoulovest, 
fe 3. He loves. 



Imperfect Tense 
denotes past time, how- 
ever distant. 



Singular number. 
I loved, 
Thou lovedst, 
He loved. 



Plural. 

1. We love, 

2. Ye or you love, 

3. They love. 



Singular number. 

1. I have, 

M 2. Thou hast, 

% 3. He has. 

B 

o Plural. 

h 1. We have, 

2. Ye or you have, 

3. They have. 



1. 

2. 
S 3. 



Singular number. 
I am. 
Thou art, 
He is. 



Plural. 

1. We are, 

2. Ye or you are, 

3. They are. 



S 1. 

o 2. 
H 3. 



Singular number. 
I am loved, 
Thou art loved, 
He is loved. 

Plural. 
We are loved. 
Ye or you are loved, 
They are loved. 



Plural. 
We loved, 
Ye or you loved. 
They loved. 



Singular number. 
I had, 

Thou hadst, 
He had. 

Plural. 
We had. 
Ye or you had. 
They had. 



Singular number 
I was, 

Thou wast, '' 

He was. 

Plural. 
We were, 
Ye or you were. 
They were, 



Perfect Tense 
denotes past time, but 
also conveys an alljision 
to the present. 

Singular number. 
I have* loved. 
Thou hast loved. 
He has loved. 

Plural. 
We have loved. 
Ye or you have loved, 
They have loved. 



Pluperfect Tense 
denotes past time, but 
as prior to some other 
past time specified. 

Singular number. 
I had loved. 
Thou hadst loved. 
He had loved. 

Plural. 
We had loved. 
Ye or you had loved. 
They had loved. 



Singular number 
I have had, 
Thou hast had. 
He' has had. 

Plural. 
We have had, 
Ye or you have had. 
They have had. 



Singular number. 
I have been. 
Thou hast been, 
He has been. 

Plural. 
We have been. 
Ye or you have been. 
They ia.\€ been. 



Singular number. 
I was loved. 
Thou wast loved. 
He was loved. 

Plural. 
We were loved. 
Ye or you were loved, 
They were loved. 



Singular number. 
I have been loved. 
Thou hast been loved. 
He has been loved. 

Plural. 
We have been loved. 
Ye or you have been loved. 
They have been loved. 



Singular number. 
I had had, 
Thou hadst had, 
He had had. 

, Plural. 
We had had. 
Ye or you had had, 
They had had. 

Singular number. 
I had been. 
Thou hadst been. 
He had been. 

Plural. 
We had been. 
Ye or you had been, 
They had been. 



First Future Tense 
denotes fiiture time. 



Singular number. 
I shall or will love. 
Thou shalt or wilt love, 
He shall or will love. - 

Plural. 
We shall or vnll love. 
Ye or you shall or will love, 
They shall or will love. 



Secondfuture Tense 
denotes fiiture time, but 
as prior to some other 
future time specified. 

Singular number. 
I shall have loved, 
Thou shalt or wilt have loved. 
He shall or will have loved. 

Plural. 
We shall have loved, [loved. 
Ye or you shall or will have 
They shall or will have loved. 



Singular number. 
I shall or will have, 
Thou shalt or wilt have. 
He shall or will have. 

Plural. 
We shall or will have. 
Ye or you shall or will have, 
They shall or will have. 

Singular number. 
I shall or will be. 
Thou shalt or wilt be, 
He shall or will be. 

Plural. 
We shall or will be, 
Ye or you shall or will be. 
They shall or will be. 



Singular number. 
I had been loved. 
Thou hadst been loved. 
He had been loved. 

Plural. 
We had been loved, 
Ye or you had been loved. 
They had been loved. 



Singular number. 
I shall have had, 
Thou shalt or wilt have had. 
He shall or will havt had. 

Plural. 
We shall have had, [had. 
Ye or you shalt or wilt have 
They shall or will have had. 



Singular number. 
I shall hav.3 been, 
Thou shalt orwilt have been. 
He shall or will have been. 

Plural. 
We shall have been, [been, 
Ye or you shall or will have 
They shall or will have been. 



Singular number. 
1 shall or will be loved, 
Thou shalt or wilt be loved, 
He shall or will be loved. 

Plural. 
We shall or will be loved, 
Ye or you shall or will be 

loved. 
They shall or will be loved. 



> Singular number. 
I shall have been loved, 
Thou shalt or wilt have been 

loved, [loved. 

He shall or will have been 

Plural. 
We shall have been loved. 
Ye or you shall or will have 

been loved, ~ [loved. 

They shall or will have been 



RULE 1. 
The nominative case gO' 
verns the verb. 



RULE 7. 

Participles have the same 
government, as the verbs jective case 
have, from which they are 
derived. 

RULE 13. 

Pronouns must agree with 
their antecedents, or the 
nouns they represent, in gen- 
der and number. 



RULE 2. 
The verb must agree with 
its nominative in number and 
person. 

RULE 8. 
Prepositions govern the ob- 



RULE 3. 
Articles and adjectives be- 
long to nouns, which they 
qualify or define. 
RULE 9. 
Neuter verbs have the same 
case after as before them. 



RULE 14. 

Conjunctions connect nouns 

and pronouns in the same 

case, and, generally, verbs of 

the like moods and tenses. 



RULE 15. 
A noun or pronoun joined 
with a participle, and stand- 
ing independent of the rest of 
the sentence, is in the no- 
minative case independent. 



RULE 4. 
Participles, like verbs, re- 
late to nouns or pronouns. 

RULE 10. 
A noun or pronoun signify- 
ing possession, is governed by 
the noun it possesses. 

RULE 16. 
A verb in the infinitive 
mood, may be governed by a 
verb, noun, adjective, or par- 
ticiple. 



RULE 5. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, par- 
ticiples, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

RULE n. 

Two or more nouns signi- 
fying the same thing, are put, 
by apposition, in the same 
case. 

RULE 17. 

A verb in the infinitive 
mood absolute, stands inde 
pendent of the remaining 
part of the sentence. 



RULE 6. 
Active verbs govern the 
objective case. 

RULE 12. 

When an address is made 
to a person, the noun or pro- 
noun is put in the nominative 
case independent. 
RULE 18. 
The verbs which follow bid, 
dare foel, hear, let, make, need, 
see, &c. are used in the infi- 
nitive mood without having 
the sign to prefixed to them. 



FIRST itRSON. 

Singular. 
Nom. I, 

Pass, my or mine, 
Obj. me. 

Plural- 
Norn, we, 
Pos». our or ours, 
Ohj, UB. 



Declension of the personal Pronouns. 



THIRD PERSOK. 

Singular. 
Nom. it, 
Poss. its, 
Obj. it. 

Plural. 
Nom. they, 
Poss. their or theirs, 
Obj. them. 



SECOND PF.nSON. THIRD rERSOJf. THIRD PERSON. 

Singular-. Singular. Singular. 

Nom. thou, Nom. he, Nom. she, 

Poss. thy or thine, Poss. his, Poss. her or hers, 

Obj. thee. Obj. him. Obj. her. 

Plural. Plural. Plural. 

Nom. ye or you, Nom. they, Nom. they, 

Poss. your or yours, Poss. their or theirs, Poss. their or theirs, 
Obj. yf>u. Obj. them. Obj. them. 

VVhen the noun self ia added to the personal pronouns, as, himself , myself , itself , themselves, &.C. they are used in 
differently in the nominative or objective case, but have no possessive. 

A list of the pronominal Adjectives. 

One, other, another, each, every, either, neither, this, that, these, those, all, any, both, same, such, some, former, 
latter, none. Of these, one and other are declined the same as nouns. Another is declined, but wants the plural . 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

Pomfiue, wise ;Co7nj)ora«i»e, wiser; R«pcrJa«tt!e, wisest.— Po». amiable; Com. more amiable; Sup most amiable.— 
Pos. able ; Com. I'iss able; Sup. Icnst ;ible. 



Declension of the relative Pronouns. 

Singular and Plural. 
Nom. who, Poss. whosfe, Obj. whom. 

Nom. whoever, Poss. whosever, Obj. whomever. 
Aom. whosoever, Poss. whosesoever, Obj. whomsoever. 
Wliich, ty/iot, and that, are of both numbers, and are 
used in the nominative or objective case, but have no pos- 
sessive ; except that whose is sometimes used as the pos- 
sessive of which ; as, " The tree whose mortal taste brought 
death." Who, whose, and whom, .-re applied to persons, 
and which, to things or brutes, l^hat, is applied both to 
persons and things. VVhen the word ever or soever is an- 
nexed to relatives, they are, sometimes, called compound 
relatives. 



Declension of J^ouns. 



Sing. 
Nom. king 
Poss. king's 
Obj. king 



Plu. ■ 
Nom. kings 
Poss. kings' 
Obj. kings. 



Sing. 
Nom, man 
Poss. man's 
Obj, mam 



Plu. 
Nom. men 
Poss. men's 
Obj. men. 



* Auxiliary, or heJp'mii ■ncrhn nimxhme. by the help of which the EnRlinh verba are principally conjiiffnfnil. Those which ore always BUJiiUaries, are may, can, must, might, eouid, would, should, 
and shall. Those which are sorni-liraes auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs, uro dn, be, liane., anil mill. 



mm 



10 
PARSING LESSON 2. 

~ c pro n V a ^ P'" 

If our desires be moderate, our 
n V a 

wants will be few. 

CM n V ad a 

ITthe resolution were not legal. 

c pro V pro 

Unless thou hast loved her. 
en V pr pro 

If John had spoken to me. 

c pro V ar n prar 

Unless he will do the work in a 
a n 

genteel manner. 

c ar n ',. , j 

If the man shall have accomphsned 

pro n pr n 

his work by midsummer. 

en V pro n n 

If James has lost his money, Jack 

V ^ro 
will recover it. 

n pa pr n 

Henry, having graduated at college, 

V pr ar n pr . n 

will enter upon the study of divinity, 

c pro n V 

if his health admit. 

c pro n V pr n pro 

If our friend be in trouble, we, 
pro pro v «, , ^ .„ 

whom he knows and loves, will 

V pro 
console him. 

c pro V pr n c 

If we contend about trifles, and 
ad V pro n pro 

violently maintain our opinions, we 

V ad a n 
shall gain but few friends. 

on v pro n pro 

If greatness flatter our vanity, it 

V pro n 
multiplies our dangers. 

c pro V pr pro pro 

If we look around us we shall 

V c ar a n v 
perceive, that the whole universe is 

a pr a n 

full of active powers. 

c pro V pro c i ad pa 
If thou art he — but oh ! how fallen ! 
n pro v a c 

Gentlemen, you are mistaken, if 
prov ar n pr pro pro v 
I be the person to whom you allude, 
c pro V ad ar n pr 

If we possess not the power of 
n pro V ar n 

self-government, we shall be the prey 
pr a a n 

of every evil propensity. 

pa pro n pro 

Having resigned his office, he 

V pr a n c n 
retired to private life, if history 

V n 
spetik truth. 

en V ad n 

If youth be trifled away, manhood 
V a can 

will be contemptible, and old age 

a 
miserable. 

c pr a a n ar n 

If, from any internal cause, a man's 
n pr _n v ad 

peace of mind be disturbed, in vain 
pro V pro pr n c n 

we load him with riches or honours, 
pro pa pro n 

He having ended his discourse, 
ar n v 

the assembly dispersed. 

c ar n ad v pro 

If the mind be well cultivated, it 

V ar n pr n c ad pro 
produces a store of fruit ; if not, it 

V pr n 

is overrun with weeds. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. "" ~ 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

PARSING LESSON 6. 

SCHEMES OP LIFE OFTEN ILLUSORY. 

Omar, the son of Hassan, had passid seventy-five years in honour and prosperity. The favour of 
three successive califs had filled his house with gold and silver ; and whenever he appeared, the benedio 
tions of the people proclaimed his passage. 

Terrestrial happiness is of short continuance. The brightness of the flame is wasting its fuel ; the 
fragrant flower is passing away in its own odours. The vigour of Omar began to fail ; the curls of beauty 
fell from his head ; strength departed from his hands, and agility from his feet. He gave back to the calif 
the keys of trust, and the seals of secrecy ; and sought no other pleasure for the remains of life, than the 
converse of the wise, and the gratitude of the good. 

The powers of his mind were yet unimpaired. His chamber was filled by visitants, eager to catch the 
dictates of experience, and officious to pay the tribute of admiration. — Caled, the son of the viceroy of 
Egypt, entered every day early, and retired late. He was beautiful and eloquent : Omar admired his wit, 
and loved his docility. " Tell me," said Caled, " thou to whose voice nations have listened, and whose 
wisdom is known to the extremities of Asia, tell me how I may resemble Omar the prudent. The arts by 
which thou hast gained power and preserved it, are to thee no longer necessary or useful ; impart to me 
the secret of thy conduct, and teach me the plan upon which thy wisdom' has built thy fortune." 

" Young man," said Omar, " it is of little use to form plans of life. When I took my first survey of the 
world in my twentieth year, having considered the various conditions of mankind, in an hour of solitude, I 
said thus to myself, leaning against a cedar, which spread its branches over my head : ' Seventy years are 
allowed to man : I have yet fifty remaining. Ten years I will allot to the attainment of knowledge, and ten 
I will pass in foreign countries ; I shall be learned, and therefore shall be honoured ; every city will shout 
at my arrival, and every student solicit my friendship. Twenty years thus passed, will store my mind with 
images, which I shall be busy, through the rest of my life, in combining and comparing. I shall revel in 
inexhaustible accumulations of intellectual riches ; I shall find new pleasures for every moment ; and shall 
never more be weary of myself I will not, however, deviate too far from the beaten track of life, but 
will try what can be found in female delicacy. I will marry a wife beautiful as the Houries, and wise as 
Zobeide j with her I will live twenty years within the suburbs of Bagdat, in every pleasure that wealth can 
purchase, and fancy can invent. I will then retire to a rural dwelling; pass my days in obscurity and con- 
templation ; and lie silently down on the bed of death. Through my life it shall be my settled resolution, 
that I will never depend upon the smile of princes ; that I will never stand exposed to the artifices of 
courts ; I will never pant for public honours, nor disturb my quiet with the affairs of state.' Such was the 
scheme of life, which I impressed indelibly upon my memory. 

" The first part of my ensuing time was to be spent in search of knowledge, and I know not how I was 
diverted from my design. I had no visible impediments without, nor any ungovernable passions within. I 
regarded knowledge as the highest honour, and the most engaging pleasure; yet day stole upon day, and 
month glided after month, till I found that seven years of the first ten had vanished, and left nothing behind 
them. I now postponed my purpose of travelling ; for why should I go abroad when so much remained 
to be learned at home? I immured myself for four years, and studied the laws of the empire. The fame 
of my skill reached the judges; I was found able to speak upon doubtful questions; and was commanded to 
stand at tlie footstool of the calif I was heard with attention ; I was consulted with confidence ; and the 
love of praise fastened on my heart. « 

" I still wished to see distant countries ; listened with rapture to the relations of travellers ; and 
resolved some time to ask my dismission, that I might feast my soul with novelty : but my presence was 
always necessary; and the stream of business hurried me along. Sometimes I was afi'aid lest I should be 
charged with ingratitude ; but I still proposed to travel, and therefore would not confine myself by marriage. 

" In my fiftieth year, I began to suspect that the time of travelling was past; and thought it best to 
lay hold on the felicity yet in my power, and indulge myself in domestic pleasures. But at fifty no man 
easily finds a woman beautiful as the Houries, and wise as Zobeide. I inquired and rejected, consulted 
and deliberated, till the sixty-second year made me ashamed of wishing to marry. I had now nothing left 
but retirement; and for retirement I never found a time, till disease forced me from public employment. 

" Such was my scheme, and such has been its consequence. With an insatiable thirst for knowledge, 
I trifled away the years of improvement ; with a restless desire of seeing different countries, I have always 
resided in the same city; with the highest expectation of connubial felicity, I have lived unmarried; and 
with unalterable resolutions of contemplative retirement, I am going to die within the walls of Bagdat.'* 

DR. JOHNSON. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



11 



MOOD is the manner of representing action or being. 
The Subjunctive Mood expresses action or being in a doubtful or conditional manner. 



Present Tense 
denotes present time. 

TENSE 
is the division of time, 

Singular number. 

1. If I love, 

a 2. If thou love, 
^ 3. If he love. 

p Plural. 

r" 1. If we love, 

2. If ye or you love, 

3. If they love. 



Imperfect Tense 
denotes past time, how- 
ever distant. 



Singular number. 
If I loved, 
If thou lovedst. 
If he loved. 

Plural. 
If v^e loved. 
If ye or you loved. 
If they loved. 



5 3. 



3. 



Singular number. 
If I have. 
If thou have, 
If he have. 

Plural. 
If we have, 
If ye or you have. 
If they have. 



Singular number. 
1. If I be, 
^ 2. If thou be, 
BQ 3. If he be. 

o 

t< Plural. 

1. If we be, 

2. If ye or you be, 

3. If they be. 

Singular number. 

. 1. If I be loved, 

g 2. If thou be loved, 

i* 3. If he be loved, 
o 



Plural. 

1. If we be loved, 

2. If ye or you be loved, 

3. If they be loved. 



RULE 1. 
The nominative case go- 
verns the verb. 

RULE 7. 

Participles have the same 
government, aa the verbs 
have, from which they are 
derived; 

RULE 13. 

Pronouns must agree with 
their antecedents, or the 
nouns they represent, in gen 
der and number. 



Singular number. 
If I had. 
If thou hadst. 
If he had. 

Plural. 
If we had. 
If ye or you had, 
If they had. 



Singular number. 
If I were. 
If thou wert, 
If he were. 

Plural. 
If we were, 
If ye or you were. 
If they were. 

Singular number. 
If I were loved. 
If thou wert loved. 
If he were loved. 

Plural. 
If we were loved. 
If ye or you were loved. 
If they were loved. 



Singular number. 
If I have been. 
If thou hast been. 
If he has been. 

Plural. 
If we have been. 
If ye or you have been, 
If they have been. 



RULE 2. 
The verb must agree with 
its nominative in number and 
person. 

RULE 8. 
Prepositions govern the ob' 
jective case. 



RULE 14. 

Conjunctions connect nouns 
and pronouns in the same 
case, and, generally, verbs of 
the like moods and tenses 



Perfect Tense 
denotes past time, but 
also conveys an allusion 
to the present. 

Singular number. 
If I have* loved, 
If thou hast loved, 
If he has loved. 

Plural. 
If we have loved, 
If ye or you have loved. 
If they have loved. 



Singular number. 
If I have had. 
If thou hast had. 
If he has had. 

Plural. 
If we have had. 
If ye or you have had, 
If they have had. 



Singular number. 
If I had had. 
If thou hadst had. 
If he had had. 

Plural, 
If we had had, 
If ye or you had had, 
If they had had. 



Singular number. 
If I have been loved. 
If thou hast been loved. 
If he has been loved. 

Plural. 
If we have been loved. 
If ye or you have been loved, 
If they have been loved. 



RULE 3. 
Articles and adjectives be- 
long to nouns, which they 
qualify or define. 
RULE 9. 
Neuter verbs have the same 
case after as before them. 



RULE 15. 

A noun or pronoun joined 
with a participle, and stand- 
ing independent of the rest of 
the sentence, is in the no- 
minative case independent 



Pluperfect Tense 
denotes past time, but 
as prior to some other 
past time specified. 

Singular number. 
If I had loved, 
If thou hadst loved, 
If he had loved. 

Plural. 
If we had loved. 
If ye or you had loved, 
If they had loved. 



Singular number. 
If I had been, 
If thou hadst been, 
If he had been. 

Plural. 
If we had been. 
If ye or you had been. 
If they had been. 

Singular number. 
If I had been loved, 
If thou hadst been loved. 
If he had been loved. 

Plural. 
If we had been loved, 
If ye or you had been loved. 
If they had been loved. 



RULE 4. 
Participles, like verbs, re- 
late to nouns or pronouns. 

RULE 10. 
A noun or pronoun signify- 
ing possession, is governed by 
the noun it possesses. 

RULE 16. 

A verb in the infinitive 
mood, may be governed by a 
verb, noun, adjective, or par- 
ticiple. 



FIRST PERSON, 

Singular, 
Nom. I, 

Pass, my or mine, 
Obj. me. 

Plural. 
Nom. we. 
Pom. our or ours, 
OW, us 



Declension of the personal Pronouns. 



SECOND PERSON. 

Singular. 
Nom. thou, 
Poas. thy or thine, 
Obj. thee. 

Plural. 
Nom. ye or you, 
Poas. your or yours, 
Obj. you. 



THIRD PERSON. 

Singular. 
Nom. she, 
Poas. her or hers, 
Obj. her. 

Plural. 
Nom, they, 
Poss. their or theirs, 
Obj. them. 



THIRD PERSON. 

Singular, 
Nom. he, 
Poss. his, 
Obj. him. 

Plural. 
Nom. they, 
Poss. their or theirs, 
vj|ri ., , . , — ./' J"-* Ooj, them. *-'<</• ijiciii. ^-'w/. Liicjii, 

j-ff .1 • "?"" •' '^ ^"®° *° ^^^ personal pronouns, as, himself , myself , itself, themselves, &-c. they are used in- 
amerently in the nominative or objective case, but have no possessive. 

•^ list of the pronominal Adjectives. 

u^^' °*''^''' J^r^^u®'' ^^'^^' *^^'7^ either, neither, this, that, these, those, all, any, both, same, such, some, former, 
lacier, none. Ot these, one and other are declined the same as nouns. Another is declined, but wants the plural. 

Comparison of Jldjectives. 



THIRD PERSON. 

Singular. 
Nom. it, 
Poss. its, 
Obj. it. 

Plural. 
Nom, they, 
Poss, their or theirs, 
Obj, them. 



P^f'Jw'*'^''®' ^''"'^fr'''*^*'^'^^'' ^"P«''^'''«''«'^8cst.— Po».aniiable; Com. more amiable; Sup.moA amiable.- 
Pot, able ; Com, less able ; Sup, least able. 

ftnrt fwj"''% "' Itelping verbs, arc those by tho help of which the English verbs are principally conjugatocl. 
■uiQ •nail, none which are aometimea ttu» iliarie8, and sometimes principal verbs, ate do, be, have, and will. 



First Future Tense 
denotes future time. 



Singular number. 
If I shall or will love, 
If thou shalt or wilt love, 
If he shall or will love. 

Plural. 
If we shall or will love. 
If ye or you shall or will love, 
If they shall or will love. 



Singular number. 
If 1 shall or will have. 
If thou shalt or wilt have. 
If he shall or will have. 

Plural. 
If we shall or will have. 
If ye or you shall or will have, 
If they shall or will have. 



Singular number. 
If I shall or will be. 
If thou shalt or wilt be. 
If he shall or will be. 

Plural. 
If we shall or will he. 
If ye or you shall or will be. 
If they shall or will be. 



Singular number. 
If I shall or will be loved, 
If thou shalt or wilt be loved, 
If he shall or will be loved. 

Plural. 

If we shall or will be loved. 

If ye or you shall or will be 

loved. 
If they shall or will be loved 



RULE 5. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, par- 
ticiples, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

RULE 11. 

Two or more nouns signi 
fying the same thing, are put, 
by apposition, in the same 
case. 

RULE 17. 

A verb in the infinitive 
mood absolute, stands inde- 
pendent of the remaining 
part of the sentence. 



Secondfuture Tense 
denotes future time, but 
as prior to some other 
future time specified,. 

Singular number. 
If I shall have loved, [loved, 
If thou shalt or wilt have 
If he shall or will have loved. 

Plural. 
If we shall have loved. 
If ye or you shall or will have 
loved, [lovedi 

If they shall or wiU have 



Singular number. 
If I shall have had. 
If thou shalt or wilt have had. 
If he shall or will have had. 

Plural. 
If we shall have had, [had. 
If ye or you shall or will have 
If they shall or will have had. 

Singular number. 
If I shall have been, [been, 
If thou shalt or wilt have 
If he shall or will have been. 

Plural. 
If we shall have been, [been. 
If ye or you shall or will have 
If they shall or will have been. 



Singular number. 
If I shall have been loved, 
If thou shalt or wilt have been 

loved, [loved. 

If he shall or will have been 

Plural. 
If we shall have been loved. 
If ye or you shall or will have 

been loved, [loved. 

If they shall or will have been 



RULE 6. 
Active verbs govern the 
objective case. 

RULE 12. 
When an address is made 
to a person, the noun or pro- 
noun is put in the nominative 
case independent. 

RULE 18. 
The verbs whicli follow bid, 
dare/eel,hear,let,make,need, 
see, &c. are used in the infi- 
nitive mood without having 
the sign to prefixed to them. 



Declension of the relative Pronouns. 

Singular and Plural. 
Nom. who, Poss. whose, Obj. whom. 

Nom. whoever, Poss. whosever, Obj, whomever. 
Nom. whosoever, Poss. whosesoever, Obj. whomsoever. 
WItich, what, and that, are of botli numbers, and are 
used in the nominative or objective case, but have no pos- 
sessive ; except that whose is sometimes used as tlie pos- 
sessive of which ; as, " The tree whose mortal taste brought 
death." Who, whose, and ivhom, are applied to persons, 
and which, to things or brutes. That, is applied both to 
persons and things. When the word ever or soever is an- 
nexed to relatives, they are, sometimes, called compound 
relatives. 

Declension of JSTouns. 

Sing, Plu, Sing. Plu. 

Nom. king Nom. kings Nom. man Nom, men 

Poss. king's Poss. kings' Poss. man's Poas. men's 

Obj. king Obj. kings. Obj, man Obj, men. 

Those whioh are always auxiliaries, are may, can, must, might, could, viotdd, should, 



a 



12 
PARSING LESSON 3. 

n T ad a c 

Charles is not insincere ; and 
ad pro V pro 

therefore, we may trust him. 
pro V ad n pro v 

It must be so ; Plato, thou reason- 
ad 
est well. 

pro ad V ar 

We could not accomplish the 
n pr n 
business in time, 
pro V pro n pro 

It was my direction he should 

V 

submit. 

n vac pro v pro 

Amanda was ill, but I thought she 

V 

might live. 

pro a pr n 

Can we, untouched by gratitude, 

V ar 11 pv n pro ar 
view the profusion of good, which the 

any pr pro 

Almighty hand bestows around us .' 
pro V ar n pr 

We can resist the allurements of 
n 
vice, 
pro V pro 

I may have misunderstood him. 

ar n v ar 

The man might have finished the 
n ad c pro ad 

work sooner, but he could not have 

V pro ad 
done it better. 

pro V pro a n c pro 

I gave him good advice, but he 
ad v pr pro 

would not hearken to it. 

pro V 

They might have been honoured. 

ar n pro ad v 

The man, who is faithfully attach- 
pr n y ad pr 

ed to religion, may be relied on with 

a u 

humble confidence. 

a, a II 

This author's sentiments must be 
V pr pro n 

mistaken by his critic. 

n pro n 

Thousands, whom indolence has 

V pr a n 
sunk into contemptible obscurity, 

v ad pr n 

might have come forward to useful- 
c n c 11 ad 

ness and honour, if idleness had not 

V ar n pr a pro 
frustrated the effects of all their 

n B 

powers. 

pro v pa c pr ar 

We may rest assured, that by the 
a n pr n pro 

steady pursuit of virtue we shall 
V c V pro 

obtain and enjoy it. 

The physician may administer the 
n c n ad 

medicine, but Providence alone can 

V pro 
bless it. 

pa pro pr a 

Having exposed himself in different 
n pro v pro n 

climes, he may have lost liis health, 
ar n n 

The scholar's diligence must se- 

V ar n ii 
cure the tutor's approbation. 

pro pa a ar n 

She being absent, the business was 

V ad i)r a 
attended to by others. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



PARSIJ^'G LESSOJ^ 7, 



THE SHEPHERD 

Remote from cities liv'd a swain, 
Unvex'd with all the cares of gain ; 
His head was silver'd o'er with age. 
And long experience made him sage ; 
In summer's heat and winter's cold. 
He fed his flock and penn'd the fold; 
His hours in cheerful labour flew. 
Nor envy nor ambition knew : 
His wisdom and his honest fame 
Through all the country rais'd his name. 

A deep philosopher (whose rules 
Of moral life were drawn from schools) 
The shepherd's homely cottage sought, 
And thus explor'd his reach of thought. 

" Whence is thy learning 1 Hath thy toil 
O'er books consum'd the midnight oil ? 
Hast thou old Greece and Rome survey'd, 
And the vast sense of Plato weigh' d? 
Hath Socrates thy soul refin'd ? 
And hast thou fathom'd Tully's mind 1 
Or, like the wise Ulysses, thrown 
By various fates on realms unknown, 
Hast thou through many cities stray'd, 
Their customs, laws, and manners weigh'd 1" 

The shepherd modestly reply'd, 
" I ne'er the paths of learning try'd ; 
Nor have I roam'd in foreign parts, 
To read mankind, their laws and arts; 
For man is practis'd in disguise; 
He cheats the most discerning eyes. 
Who by that search shall wiser grow 1 
By that ourselves we never know. 
The little knowledge I have gain'd, 
Was all from simple nature drain' d ; 
Hence my life's maxims took their rise, 
Hence grew my set^ed hate to vice. 
The daily labours of the bee 
Awake my soul to industry. 
Who can observe the careful ant, 
And not provide for future want? 



AND THE PHILOSOPHER. 

My dog (the trustiest of his kind) 
With gratitude inflames my mind : 
I mark his true, his faithful way. 
And in my service copy Tray. 
In constancy and nuptial love, 
I learn my duty from the dove. 
The hen, that from the chilly air, 
With pious wing, protects her care, 
And ev'ry fowl that flies at large. 
Instruct me in a parent's charge. 

" From nature too I take my rule. 
To shun contempt and ridicule. 
I never, with important air. 
In conversation overbear. 
Can grave and formal pass for wise, 
When men the solemn owl despis^ ? 
My tongue within my lips I rein ; 
For who talks much must talk in vain. 
We from the wordy torrent fly : 
Who listens to the chatt'ring pie ? 
Nor would I, with felonious flight. 
By stealth invade my neighbour's right : 
Rapacious animals we hate; 
Kites, hawks, and wolves deserve their fate. 
Do not we just abhorrence find 
Against the toad and serpent kind ? 
But envy, calumny and spite. 
Bear stronger venom in their bite. 
Thus ev'ry object of creation 
Can furnish hints to contemplation ; 
And, from the most minute and mean, 
A virtuous mind caji morals glean." 

" Thy fame is just," the sage replies ; 
" Thy virtue proves thee truly wise." 

Pride often guides the author's pen, 
Books as affected are as men : 
But he who studies nature's laws, 
From certain truth his maxims draws; 
And those without our schools, suffice 
To make men moral, good, and wise. 



PARSIJSTG LESSOR 8. 



NOTHING FORJIED IN VAIN. 



Let no presuming impious railer tax 
Creative wisdom ; as if aught was form'd 
In vain, or not for admirable ends. 
Shall little haughty ignorance pronounce 
His works unwise, of which the smallest part 
Exceeds the narrow vision of her mind? 
As if, upon a full-proportion'd dome. 
On swelling columns heav'd, the pride of art ! 
A critic-fly, whose feeble ray scarce spreads 
An inch around, with blind presumption bold. 
Should dare to tax the structure of the whole. 
And lives the man, whose universal eye 



Has swept at once th' unbounded scheme of things, 
Mark'd their dependence so, and firm accord. 
As with unfault'ring accent to conclude. 
That this availeth nought? Has any seen 
The mighty chain of beings, less'ning down 
From infinite perfection, to the brink 
Of dreary nothing, desolate abyss ! 
From which astonish'd thought, recoiling, turns? 
Till then alone let zealous praise ascend. 
And hymns of holy wonder, to that power. 
Whose wisdom shines as lovely in our minds. 
As on our smiling eyes his servant sun. 

THOMSON. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



13 



MOOD is the manner of representing action or being. 

The Potential Mood declares the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of action or being. 



Present Tense 
denotes present time. 

TENSE _ _ 
is the division of time. 
Singular number. 

1. I may, can, or must 

love, [love, 

«2. Thou mayst, c. or m. 
^3. He may, c. or m. love 
J Plural. 

o 1. We may, can, or must 
H love, [love, 

2. Ye or you m. c. or m. 

3. They m. c. or m. love 



Imperfect Tense 
denotes past time, liow- 
ever distant. 



Singular number. 
I might, could, would, or 

should love. 
Thou mightst, c. w. or s. love. 
He might, c.-w. or s. love 

Plural. 
We might, could, vcould, or 

should love. 
Ye or you m. c. w. or s. love, 
They m. c. w. or s. love. 



Singular number. 
1. 1 may, can, or must have, 
(^2. Thou mayst, c. or m 
> have, 

M 3. He may, c. or m. have 
■^ Plural. 

^ 1. We may, can, or must 
have, [have, 

2. Ye or you ra. c. or m. 

3. They m. c. or m. have. 

Singular number. 

1. I may, can, or must 

be, 

. 2. Thou mayst, c. or m. be, 
(§3. He may, c. or m. be. 
^ Plural. 

^ 1. We may, can, or must be, 

2. Ye or you m. c. or m 

be, 

3. Tliey m. c. or m. be. 

Singular number. 

1. I may, can, or must be 
a loved, [loved 
^ 2. Thou mayst, c. or m. be| 
o 3. He m. c. or m. be loved 
•^ Plural, [loved, 
gl. We may, c. or m. be 

2. Ye or you m. c. or m. be 
^ loved, [loved. 

3. They m. c. or m. be 



Perfect Tense 
denotes past time, but 
also conveys an allusion 
to the present. 

Singular number. 
I may, can, or must have 

loved, [loved. 

Thou mayst, c. or m. have 
He may, c. or m. have loved 

Plural. 
We may, c. or m. have loved. 
Ye or you m. c. or m. have 

loved. 
They m. c. or m. have loved. 



Singular number. 
I might, could, would, 

should have. 
Thou mightst, c. w. or s. have, 
He might, c. w. or s. have, 

Plural. 
We might, could, woiild, or 

should ha^^^ 
Ye or you ^^Hl or s. have, 
They m. c.^^Hs. have. 



Singular number. 
I might, could, would, 

should be. 
Thou mightst, c. w. or s. be. 
He might, c. w. or s. be. 

Plural. 
We might, could, would, or 

should be. 
Ye or you m. c. w. or s. bS; 
They m. c. w. or s. be. 



Singular number. 
I might, could, would, or 

should be loved, [loved. 
Thou mightst, c. w. or s. be 
He might, c: w: or s: be loved 

Plural. 
We m. c. w. or s. be loved, 
Ye or you m. c. w. or s. be 

loved, 
They m. c. w. or B.be loved. 



Pluperfect Tense 
denotes past time, but 
as prior to some other 
past time specified. 

Singular number. 
I might, could, would, or 

should have loved, [loved. 
Thou mightst, c. w. or s. have 
He m. d. w. or s. have loved. 

Phiral 

We m. c. w. or s. have loved. 
Ye or you m. c. w. or s. have 

loved, [loved. 

They m. c. w. or s. have 



Singular number. 

I may, can, or must have had, 

Thou mayst, canst, or must 

have had, [had 

He may, can or must have 

Plural. 
We may, can, or must have 

had, [have had 

Ye or you may, can, or must 
They m. c. or m. have had 



Singular number. 
I may, can, or must have 

been, [been 

Thou mayst, c. or m. have 
He may, c. or m. have been 

Plural. 

We may, c. or m. have been 

Ye or you m. c. or m. have 

been, 
They m. c. or m. have been 

Singular number. [loved 
I may, can, or must have been 
Thou mayst, c. or m. have 

been loved, [loved 

He may, c. or m. have been 
Plural. [loved 
We may, c, or m. have been 
Ye or you m. c. or m. have 

been loved, [loved 

They m. c. or m. have been 



First Future Tense 
denotes future time. 



Singular number. 

might, could, would, or 

should have had, [had, 

Thou mightst, c. w. or s. have 

He might, c. w. ors. have had. 

Plural. 

We m. c. w. or s. have had, 

Ye or you m. c. w. or s. have 

had. 
They m. c. w. or s. have had. 



Singular number. 
I might, could, would, or 

should have been, [been. 
Thou mightst, c. w. or s. have 
He m. c. w. or s. have been 

Plural. 
We m. c. w. or s. have been. 
Ye or you m. c. w. or s. have 

been, [been. 

They m. c. w. or s. have 



Singular number: [loved, 
I might, c. w. or s. have been 
Thou mightst, c.w. ors. have 

been loved, [loved. 

He might, c.w. ors. have been 
Plural: [loved, 
We m. c. w. or s. have been 
Ye or you m. c. w. or s. have 

been loved, [loved 

They m. c. w. ors: have been 



Secondfviure Tense 
denotes future time, but 
as prior to some other 
future time specified. 



RULE 1. 
The nominative case go- 
verns the verb. 



RULE 7. 

Participles have the same 
government, as the verbs jective case- 
have, from which they are 
derived. 

RULE 13. 

Pronouns must agree with 
their antecedents, or the 
nouns they represent, in gen- 
der and number. 



^ RULE 2. 

The verb must agree with 

its nominative in number and 

person. 

RULE 8. 
Prepositions govern the ob- 



RULE 3. 
Articles and adjectives be- 
long to nouns, which they 
qualify or define. 
RULE 9. 
Neuter verbs have the same 
case after as befpre them 



RULE 14. 

Conjunctions connect nouns 

and pronouns in the same 

case, and, generally, verbs of 

the like moods and tenses. 



RULE 15. 
A noun or pronoun joined 
with a participle, and stand- 
ing independent of the rest of 
the sentence, is in the no- 
minative case independent 



RULE 4. 
Participles, like verbs, re- 
late to nouns or pronouns. 

RULE 10. 
A noun or pronoun signify 
ing possession, is governed by 
the noun it possesses. 

* RULE 16. 

A verb in the infinitive 
mood, may be governed by a 
verb, noun, adjective, or par 
ticiple. 



RULE 5. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, par- 
ticiples, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

RULE 11. 

Two or more nouns signi 
fying the same thing, are put, 
by apposition, in the same 
case. 

RULE 17. 

A verb in the infinitive 
mood absolute, stands inde- 
pendent of the remaining 
part of the sentence. 



RULE 6. 

Active verbs govern the 
objective case. 

RULE 12. 
When an address is made 
to a person, the noun or pro- 
noun is put in the nominative 
case independent. 

RULE 18. 
The verbs which follow bid, 
darefeel,hear,let,make,need, 
see, &c. are used in the infi- 
nitive mood without having 
the sign to prefixed to them. 



Declension of the personal Pronouns. 



FIRST PERSON. 



SECOND PERSON. 



THIRD PERSON. 



THIRD PERSON. 



THIRD PERSON. 



Singular. 
Norn, it, 
Pass, its, 
it. 

Plural. 
they, 

their or theirs, 
them. 



Obj. 



Nom 
Poss 
Obj 



Singular, Singular. Singular. Singular, 

Nom. I, Nom. tliou, Nom. he, Nom. slie, 

Poss. my or mine, Poss. thy or thine, Poss. his, Poss. her or hers, 

Obj. me, Obj. thee. . 06;. him. Obj. her. 

Plural. Plural. Plural. Plural. 

Nom. we, Nom. ye or you, Nom. they, Nom. they, 

Poss. our or ours, Poss. your or yours, Poss. their or theirs, Poss. their or theirs, 
Obj. us. Obj. you. Obj. tliem. Obj. them. 

when the noun self\s added to the personal pronouns, as, himself, myself, itself, themselves, &i,c. they are used in 
differently in the nominative or objective case, but have no possessive. 

A list of the pronominal Mjectives. 

One, other, another, each, every, either, neither, this, that, these, those, all, any, both, same, such, some, former, 
latter, none. Of these, one and other are declined the same as nouns. Another is also declined, but wants the plural 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

Positive, 'wise; Comparative, viher ; ;Super2<ili«e, wisest. — Pot. amiable ; Com. more amiable ; Sup. most amiable. — 
Po3. able ; Com. less able ; Sup, least able, 

• .Auxiliary, or helping verbs, aro tho.se by the help of which the English verbs arc principally conjugatorl. Those which are always auxiliarios, are may, can, mtut, might, could, vxmld, should, 
and shall. Tliose wliicli are nonietimes auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs, are do, be, have, and wilt. 



Declension of the relative Pronouns. 

Singular and Plural. 
Nom. wlio, Poss. whose, Obj. whom. 

Nom. whoever, Poss. whosever, Obj. whomever. 
Nom. whosoever, Poss. whosesoever, Obj. whomsoever. 
IVIiich, what, and that, are of both numbers, and are 
used in the nominative or objective case, but have no pos- 
sessive ; except that whose is sometimes used as the pos- 
sessive of which ; as, " The tree whose mortal taste brought 
death," Who, whose, and whom, are applied to persons, 
and which, to things or brutes. That, is applied both to 
persons and things. When the word ever or soever is an- 
nexed to relatives, they are, sometimes, called compound 
relatives. 

Declension of J^ouns. 



Sing, Plu. 

Nom. king Nom. kings 

Poss. king's Poss. kings' 

Obj. king' Obj. kings. 



Sing:. Plu. 

Nom, man Nom, men 

Poss. man's Fobs, men's 

Obj, man>. Obj, men. 



14 
PARSING LESSON 4. 

pr pro n pro v n 

In our travels we saw much to 

V c n V 
approve, and much to condemn. 

pro V a V ar 

It is delightful to contemplate the 
n pr n 

goodness of Providence, 
pro V ar n pro v ar n 
I am the person who owns a fault 
pa c pro v 

committed, and who disdains to 

V pro 
conceal it. 

pro V V pro 

He was known to have loved her. 
ar a n V a v 

A good man is unwilling to give 
n pr n c n 
pain to man or beast. 

ar a n a n v 

The good parent's greatest joy is 

V pro n a c a 

to see his children wise and virtuous. 

pro pro ad ad ~v c 

Whom can we so justly love as 

pro pro V V 

tliera who have endeavoured to make 



pro a c a 
us wise and happy ? 




pro V ad V pro 
We dare not leave our 


n 
studies 


pr n 
without permission. 




pro n c n 
Our parents and teachers 


V ar 
are the 


11 pro pro V pr 
persons whom we ought in 


ar 

a par- 



ticular manner to respect. 

pro V ad V n v 

We need not urge Charles to do 
n pro V V pro 

good, he loves to do it. 

V v 

To have been admired, availed 
pro ad 
him little. 

pro pa a v 

They being willing to improve, 
ar n v a 

the study was rendered agreeable, 
n V pro v 

Compassion prompted us to relieve 
n n 

Norman's wants. 

ar a n ad a c 

A young man, so learned and vir- 
a V V ar ad a 

tuous, promises to be a very useful 

n pr n 
member of society. 

c n c a 

Neither threatenings nor any pro- 
T) V pro v ar 

mifies could make him violate the 

n 
truth. 

c a n V V 

Though bad men attempt to turn 
n pr n pro v pro 

virtue into ridicule, they honour it 
pr ar n pr pro n 
at the bottom of their hearts, 
n pro V 

Sir Charles, are you prepared to 
V pr a n 

answer to these accusations ? 
pro pa pr ar n 

He, being loved by the duke, ex- 
V V c i ar 

pcctcd to be pardoned ; but ah ! the 

n pr n 

delusions of hope I 

V pr ad 

To have been censured by so ju- 
a^ ar n ad 

dicioUs a friend, would Iiave greatly 

V pro 

discouraged mo. 

V ar n pro v pr n 
To confnss the truth, I was in f lult. 



GRAMMAR SLMPLIFIED. 
P^RSIJSTG LESSOJ^ 9. 

PROVIDENCE INDICATED IN V&IE KlESENi- 
STATE OF MAN, 

Heav'n from all creatures hides the book of fate. 
All but the page prescrib'd, their present state ; 
From brutes what men, from men what spirits know, 
Or who could suffer being here below? 
The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
Had he thy reason, would he skip and play ? 
Pleas'd to the last, he crops the flow'ry food, 
And licks the hand just rais'd to shed his blood. 
Oh, blindness to the future ! kindly given, 
That each may fill the circle mark'd by Heav'n; 
Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, 
A hero perish, or a sparrow fall ; 
Atoms or systems into ruin hurl'd, 
And now a bubble burst, and now a world. 

Hope humbly then ; with trembling pinions soar ; 
Wait the great teacher death ; and God adore. 
What future bliss,he gives not thee to know, 
But gives that hope to be thy blessing now. 
Hope springs eternal in the human breast : 
Man never is, but always to be blest : 
The soul, uneasy and confin'd from home, 
Rests and expatiates in a life to come. 

Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutor'd mind 
Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the wind ; 
His soul proud science never taught to stray ' 
Far as the Solar Walk or Milky Way; 
Yet simple nature to his hope has giv'n, 
Behind the cloud-topt hill, an humbler heav'n ; 
Some safer world in depth of woods embrae'd, 
Some happier island in the wat'ry waste ; 
Where slai^es once more their native land behold, 
No fiends torment, no Christians thirst for gold, 
To BE, contents his natural desire ; 
He asks no angel's wing, no seraph's fire : 
But thinks, admitted to that equal sky, 
His faithful dog shall bear him company. 

Go, wiser thou! and in thy. scale of sense, 
Weigh thy opinion against Providence ; 
Call imperfection what thou fanciest such, 
Say here he gives too little, there too much. 
In pride, in reas'ning pride, our error lies ; 
All quit their sphere, and rush into the skies. 
Pride still is aiming at the blest abodes, 
Men would be angels, angels would be gods. 
Aspiring to be gods, if ang^s fell, 
Aspiring to be angels, men rebel ; 
And who but wishes to invert the laws 
Of ORDER, sins against th' eternal cause. pope. 
PARSIJ^G LESSOJ^ 10. 
selfishness reproved. ' 
Has God, thou fool ! work'd solely for thy good, 
Thy joy, thy pastime, thy attire, thy food ? 
Who for thy table feeds the wanton fawn, 
For him as kindly spreads the flow'ry lawn. 
Is it for thee the lark ascends and sings? 
Joy tunes his voice, joy elevates his wings. 



Is it for thee the linnet pours his throat ? 
Loves of his own, and raptures swell the note. 
The bounding steed you pompously bestride, 
Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride. 
Is thine alone the seed that strews the plain? 
The birds of heav'n shall vindicate their grain. 
Thine the full harvest of the golden year ? 
Part pays, and justly, the deserving steer. 
The hog, that ploughs not, nor obeys thy call, 
Lives on the labours of this lord of all. ( 

Know, nature's children all divide her care ; 
The fur that warms a monarch, warm'd a bear. 
While man exclaims, " See all things for my use 1" 
" See man for mine !" replies a pamper'd goose. 
And just as short of reason he must fall. 
Who thinks all made for one, not one for all. 

Grant that the pow'rful still the weak control ; 
Be man the w^«nd tyrant of the whole ; 
Nature that tj^^K checks : he only knows. 
And helps anWrer creature's wants and woes. 
Say, will the falcon, stooping from above, 
Smit with her varying plumage, spare the dove ? 
Admires the jay the insect's gilded wings? 
Or hears the hawk when Philomela sings ? 
Man cares for all : to birds he gives his woods. 
To beasts his pastures, and to fish his floods. 
For some his int'rest prompts him to provide. 
For rhore his pleasure, yet for more his pride. 
All'feed on one vain patron, and enjoy 
Th' extensive blessing of his luxury. 
That very life his learned hunger craves, 
He saves from famine, from the savage saves ; 
Nay, feasts the animal he dooms his feast ; 
And, till he ends the being, makes it blest; 
Which sees no more the stroke, nor feels the pain> 
Than favour'd man by touch ethereal slain. 
The creature had his feast of life before ; 
Thou too must perish when thy feast is o'er ! pope. 

PARSIJSTG LESSOJ^ 11. 

THE DYING CHRISTIAN. 

Vital spark of heav'nly flame I 

Quit, O quit this mortal frame : 

Trembling, hoping, ling'ring, flying, 

O the pain, the bliss of dying ! 

Cease, fond nature, cease thy strife. 

And let me languish into life. 

Hark ! they whisper, angels say, 

" Sister spirit, come away ;" 

What is this absorbs me quite ? 

Steals my senses, shuts my sight, 

Drowns my spirit, draws my breath ? 

Tell me, my soul, can this be death? 

The world recedes, it disappears ! 

Heav'n opens on my eyes — my ears 

With sound seraphic ring ! 

Lend, lend your wings, I mount ! I fly ! 

O grave, where is thy victory ? 

O death, where is thy sting ? pope. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



15 



MOOD is the manner of representing action or being. 

The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and unlimited manner ; having no nominative, consequently, neither number nor person. 



Present Tense 
denotes present time. 

TENSE 

is the division of time. 



To love. 



Participle. 
Present. Loving. 



Imperfect Tense 
denotes past time, how- 
ever distant. 



g To have. 



Participle. 
Present. Having. 



H 

pa 

o To be. 



Participle. 
Present. Being. 



O 

q To be loved. 



Participle. 
Present. Being loved. 



RULE 1. 
The nominative case go- 
verns the verb. 



RULE 7. 

Participles have the same 
government, as the verbs jective case 
have, from whicli they are 
derived. 

RULE 13. 

Pronouns must agree "vixlh 
their antecedents, or the 
nokins they represent, in gen- 
der and number. 



Perfect Tense 
denotes past time, but 
also conveys an allusion 
to the present. 



RULE 2. 

The verb must agree with 

its nominative in number and 

person. 

RULE 8. 
Prepositions govern the ob- 



RULE 14. 

Conjunctions connect nouns 
and pronouns in the same 
case, and, generally, verbs of 
the like moods and tenses. 



Pluperfect Tense First Fviure Tense 
denotes past time, but denotes future time, 
as prior to some other 
past time specified. 



To have loved. 



Participle. 
Perfect. Loved. 
Compound Perfect. Hav- 
ing loved. 



To have had. 



Participle. 
Perfect. Had. 
Compound Perfect. Hav 
ing had. 



To have been. 



Participle. 
Perfect. Been. 
Compound Perfect, Hav- 
ing been. 



To have been loved. 



Participle. 
Perfect. Loved. 
Compound Perfect. 
iilg been loved. 



Secondfuture Tense 
denotes fiiture time, but 
as prior to some other 
future time specified. 



Hav- 



RULE 3. 

Articles and adjectives be 

long to nouns, which they 

qualify or define. 

RULE 9. 

Neuter verbs have the same 
case after as before them. 



RULE 15. 
A noun or pronoun joined 
with a participle, and stand- 
ing independent of the rest of 
the sentence, is in the no 
minative case independent. 



RULE 4. 
Participles, like verbs, re- 
bate to nouns or pronouns 

RULE 10. 
A noun or pronoun signify- 
ing possession, is governed by 
the noun it possesses, i 

RULE 16, 

A verb in the infinitive 
mood, may be governed by a 
verb, noun, adjective, or par- 
ticiple. 



Nom. 
Posa. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



flRST PERSON. 

Singular, 
I, 

my or mine, 
me. 

Plural. 
we, 

our -or ours, 
us. 



Declension of the personal Pronouns. 

SECOND PERSOIT. THIRD PERSON. 

Singular. Singular. 

Nom. thou, Nom. he, 

Poss. thy or thine. Poss. his, 

Obj. thee. ' Obj. him. 

Plural. Plwal. 

Nom. ye or you, Nom. they, 

Poss. your or yours, Poss. their or theirs 

Obj. you. Obj. them. 



THIRD PERSON. 

Singular. 
Nom. she, 
Poss. her or hers, 
Obj. her. 

Plural. 
Nom. they, 
Poss. their or theirs, 
Obj. tliem. 



THIRD PERSON. 

Singular. 
Nom. it, 
Poss.' its, 
Obj. it. 

Plural. 
Nom. they, 
Poss, their or theirs, 
Obj. them. 



rfiffil-!i^'Jl!;''f„".r" ''i^'V'^^ed to the personal pronouns, as, himself, myself, itself, themselves, &c.lhey are used in- 
differently in the nominative or objective ease, but have no possessive. "' •" •' 

^ list of the pronominal Adjectives. 

latfp^nnn'T' or^t^f' '^^' *''/T,' either neither, this, that, these, those, all, any, both, same, such, some, former, 
latter, none. Of these, one Mdother are declined the same as nouns. Anotheria alsodeclined, but wMtsthe plural 

Comparison of Adjectives : 

PoraWe*; Co":&r;'S"S l^^^J^'^^'^'^^'-Po^-^-^^Ue; Com. more amiable; Sup.most amiable.- 

^:i1kaU:'^'?iZ Siir*rre'"L'i^iarfes,?nd°Llti^^^^^^^ '^'"« ^''''='' ="« alwa^ys^auJlTa^re's, IZraa^^Zn^^^v^l'MigK could, wom,.n<nUi, 



RULE 6. 
Adverbs qualify verbs, par 
ticiples, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

RULE 11. 
Two or more nouns- signi- 
fying the same thing, are put, 
by apposition, in the same 
case. 

RULE 17. 

A verb in the infinitive 

mood absolute, stands inde- 



part of the sentence. 



RULE 6. 
Active verbs govern the 
objective case. 

RULE 12. 

When an address is made 
to a person, the noun or pro- 
noun is put in the nominative 
case independent. 
RULE 18. 

The verbs which follow bid, 
dare feel, hear, let, make, need, 



pendent of the remaining see, &c. are used in the infi- 



nitive mood without having 
the sign to prefixed to them. 



Declension of the relative fronouns. 

Singular and Plural. 
Nom. who, Poss. whose, Obj. whom. 

Nom. whoever, Poss. whosever, Obj. whomever. 
Nom. whosoever, Poss. whosesoever, Obj. whomsoever. 
Which, what, and that, are of both numbers, and are 
used in tlie nominative or objective case, but have no pos- 
sessive ; except that whose is sometimes used as the pos- 
sessive of which ; as, " The tree whose mortal taste brought 
death." Who, lohose, and whom, are applied to persons, 
and which, to things or brutes. That, is applied both to 
persons and things. When the word ever or soever is an- 
nexed to relatives, they are, sometimes, called compound 

relatives- 
Declension of Kouns. 



Sing, Pbi, 

Nom. king Nom. kings 

Po.is. king's Poss. kings' 

Obj. kings. Obj. kings. 



Sins'. Plu. 

Nom, man Nom, men 

Poss. man's Poss, men's 

Obj, mans. Obj, men. 



16 
PARSING LESSON 6. 

pro n V ar n pr pro 

My son, hear the counsel of thy 

n c V ad ar n pr pro 

father, and forsake not the law of thy 

n 
mother. 

pr pro a n v a 

In your whole behaviour, be hum- 
c a c pr pro a 

ble and obliging ; and in your youth- 

n V a n 

ful amusements, let no unfairness be 

V 

found. 

n V ad ar a 

Guard! Drag here the Spanish 
n n ad V ar 

prisoner Alonzo! Quick! bring the 

n ad 
traitor here. 

V pr pro n a a 

Engrave on your mind this sacred 
■"h " V pr a c pro v 

rule; "Do unto others as you wish 

c pro V pr pro 

that they should do unto you." 
n V pro V pro v 
Henry, let me hear you read. 
V a n pr ar 

Let no compliance with the im- 
i-v a n pr a ad 

moderate mirth of others, ever be- 

V pro pr a n 
tray you into profane sallies. 

V pr a a c a 

Beware of those rash and dangerous 
n pro ad 

coimexions which afterward may 

V pro pr n 
load you with dishonour. 

V ar n pr n 

To correct the spirit of discontent, 

V pro V ad a pro v 
let us consider how little we deserve, 

c ad a pro v 
and how much we enjoy. 

ad pro van 

When you behold wicked men 
pa pr n c pa 

multiplying in number, and increas- 

pr n V ad c 

ing Ln power, imagine not that Pro- 

n V pro 

vidence favours them. 

V pro v ad pro n c 

Leave me, take off his chains and 

V pro ad 
use him well. 

ad ad v a a 

No more ! unbind that trembling 
n V pro V pro v ad 

wretch ; let him depart ; it is well 
pro V ar n pro 

he should report the mercies which 
pro pr a n i 

we show to insolent defiance. Hark ! 
pro n V V pro 

our troops are moving. Follow me, 

n 
friends. 

V pro ar n 
Art thou a parent ? 



V pro 
Teach thy 



children obedience. 
V pro ar n 
Art thou 



son or a daughter .' 
V pro n V a pr 

Obey thy parents, be grateful to 

pro V pr ar n n 

them ; tliink of a mother's tendcr- 

c ar n n ' 

ness, and a father's care. 

a n V n c a v 

This book is Peter's, and that is 
n c pro V a c pro 

Ehza s ; but his is better than hers. 
„ * , P' ?f n V a nro 

li-ach ot the apples is tart ; yours 

^ I, ^. .L*^ ?'° '^ P'o c pro 
13 better than lus or here, but mine 
y a c a 
is better than either. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 
PARSIJ^G LESSOJ^ 12. 

DISCOURSE BETWEEN ADAM AND EVE, RETIRING TO REST. 

Now came still ev'ning on, and twilight gray 
Had in her sober livery all things clad. 
Silence accompanied ; for beast and bird, 
They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, 
Were slunk ; all but the wakeful nightingale j 
She all night long her am'rous descant sung : 
Silence was pleas'd. Now glow'd the firmament 
With living sapphires : Hesperus, that led 
The starry host, rode brightest, till the moon, 
Rising in clouded majesty, at length, 
Apparent queen, unveil'd her peerless light. 
And o'er the dark her silver mantle threw. 
When Adam thus to Eve : " Fair consort, th' hour 
Of night, and all things now retir'd to rest. 
Mind us of like repose ; since God hath set 
Labour and rest, as day and night to men 
Successive ; and the timely dew of sleep. 
Now falling with soft slumb'irous weight, inclines 
Our eye-lids. Other creatures all day long 
Rove idle, unemploy'd, and less need rest ; 
Man hath his daily work of body or of mind 
Appointed, which declares his dignity. 
And the regard of heav'n on all his ways; 
While other animals unactive range, 
And of their doings God takes no account. 
To-morrow, ere fresh morning streak the east 
With first approach of light, we must be risen. 
And at our pleasant labour ; to reform 
Yon flow'ry arbours, yonder alleys green. 
Our walk at noon with branches overgrown. 
That mock our scant manuring, and require 
More hands than ours to lop their wanton growth. 
Those blossoms also, and those dropping gums. 
That lie bestrewn, unsightly and unsmooth. 
Ask riddance, if we mean to tread with ease. 
Meanwhile, as Nature wills, night bids us rest." 

To whom thus Eve, with perfect beauty adorn'd : 
" My author and disposer, what thou bidst 
Unargu'd I obey ; so God ordains. 
With thee conversing I forget all time. 
All seasons and their change, all please alike. 
Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet. 
With charm of earliest birds ; pleasant the sun 
When first on this delightful land he spreads 
His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower, 
Glist'ning with dew ; fragrant the fertile earth 
After soft showers ; and sweet the coming on 
Of grateful ev'ning mild ; then silent night, 
With this her solemn bird, and this fair moon. 
And these the gems of heav'n, her starry train : 
But neither breath of morn, when she ascends 
With charms of earliest birds; nor rising sun 
On this delightful land ; nor herb, fruit, flower, 
Glist'ning with dew ; nor fragrance after showers ; 
Nor grateful ev'ning mild ; nor silent night 
With this her solemn bird ; nor walk by moon, 
Or glittering star-light — without thee is sweet. 
But wherefore all night long shine these? for whom 



This glorious sight, when sleep hath shut all eyes? 

To whom our gen'ral ancestor replied : 
" Daughter of God and man, accomplish'd Eve, 
These have their course to finish round the earth, 
By morrow ev'ning ; and from land to land, 
In order, though to nations yet unborn, 
Minist'ring light prepar'd, they set and rise 
Lest total darkness should by night regain 
Her old possession, and extinguish life 
In nature and all things ; which these soft fires 
Not only enlighten, but with kindly heat 
Of various influence, foment and warm. 
Temper or nourish ; or in part shed down 
Their stellar virtue on all kinds that grow 
On earth, made hereby apter to receive 
Perfection from the sun's more potent ray. 
These then, though unbeheld in deep of night, 
Shine not in vain ; nor think, though men were none 
That heav'n would want spectators, God want praise, 
Millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth 
Unseen, both when we wake and when we sleep. 
All these with ceaseless praise his works behold, 
Both day and night. How often, from the steep 
Of echoing hill, or thicket, have we heard 
Celestial voices to the midnight air. 
Sole, or responsive each to other's note, 
Singing their great Creator ! Oft in bands, 
While they keep watch, or nightly rounding walk 
With heav'nly touch of instrumental sounds. 
In full -harmonic number join'd, their songs 
Divide the night, and lift our thoughts to heav'n." 

Thus talking hand in hand alone they pass'd 
On to their blissful bow'r : it was a place 
Chos'n by the sov'reign Planter, when he fi-am'd 
All things to man's delightful use ; the roof 
Of thickest covert was inwoven shade. 
Laurel and myrtle, and what higher grew 
Of firm and fragrant leaf; on either side 
Acanthus, and each odorous bushy shrub, 
Fenc'd up the verdant wall ; each beauteous flow'r. 
Iris all hues, roses and jessamine, [wrought 

Rear'd high their flourish'd heads between, and 

Mosaic ; ■ 

Thus, at their shady lodge arriv'd, both stood. 
Both turn'd ; and under open sky ador'd 
The God that made both sky, air, earth, and heav'n 
Which they beheld, the moon's resplendent globe. 
And starry pole. " Thou alsomad'st the night. 
Maker Omnipotent, and thou the day, 
Which Ave, in our appointed work employ'd, 
Have finish'd, happy in our mutual help. 
And mutual love, the crown of all our bliss 
Ordain'd by thee ; and this delicious place 
For us too large ; where thy abundance wants 
Partakers, and uncropt falls to the ground ; 
But thou hast promis'd from us two a race. 
To fill the earth, who shall with us extol 
Thy goodness infinite, both when we wake, 
And when we seek, as now, thy gift of sleep." 

MILTON. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



MOOD is the manner of representing action or being 
The Imperative Mood commands, exhorts, oi* entreats. 



1? 



Pluperfect Tense 
denotes past time, but 
as prior to some other 
past time specified. 



Imperfect Tense 
denotes past time how 
ever distant. 



Perfect Tense 
denotes past time, but 
also conveys an allusion 
to the present. 



Present Tense 
denotes present time. 

TENSE 
is the division of time. 

Singular number. 
2. Love, love thou, or do 
• thou love. 

w 

>■ 

2 Plural. 

ij2. Love, love ye or you, 
i-i or do ye or you love. 



Singular number. 
. 2. Have, have thou, or do 
^ thou have. 
< 

* Plural. 

jP2. Have, have ye or you_ 
or do ye or you have. 



Singular number, 
2. Be, be thou, or do thou 
be. 



o Plural. 

E" 2. Be, be ye or you, or do 
ye or you be. 



Singular number. 
. 2. Be loved, be thou lov- 
g ed, or do thou be 

> loved. 

o 

'^ Phtral. 

§ 2. Be loved, be ye or you 
Q loved, or do ye or you 
fi be loved. 



RULE 1. 
The nominative case go- 
verns the verb. 



RULE 7. 

Participles have the same 
government, as the verbs jective case. 
have, from which they are 
derived. 

RULE 13. 

Pronouns must agree with 
their antecedents, or the 
nouns they represent, in gen- 
der and number. 



RULE 2. 

The verb must agree with 

its nominative in number and 

person. 

RULE 8. 
Prepositions govern the ob- 



First Future Tense 
denotes future time. 



RULE 3. 
Articles and adjectives be- 
long to nouns, which they 
qualify or define. 
RULE 9. 
Neuter verbs have the same 
case after as before them. 



RULE 14. 
Conjunctions connect nouns 
and pronouns in the same 
case, and, generally, verbs of ing independent of the rest of 



the like moods and tenses. 



RULE 15. 
A noun or pronoun joined 
with a participle, and stand- 



the sentence, is in the no- 
minative case independent. 



RULE 4. 
Participles, like verbs, re 
late to nouns or pronouns. 

RULE 10. 
A noun or pronoun signify- 
ing possession, is governed by 
the noun it possesses. 

RULE 16. 
A verb in the infinitive 
mood, may be governed by a 
verb, noun, adjective, or par- 
ticiple. 



Secondfuture Tense 
denotes future time, but 
as prior to some other 
future time specified. 



RULE 5. 
Adverbs qualify verbs, par- 
ticiples, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

RULE 11. 
Two or more nouns signi- 
fying the same thing, are put, 
by apposition, in the same 
case. 

RULE 17. 
A verb in the infinitive 
mood absolute, stands inde- 
pendent of the remaining 
part of the sentence. 



RULE 6. 

Active verbs govern the 
objective case. 

RULE 12. 

When an address is made 
to a person, the noun or pro- 
noun is put in the nominative 
case independent. 
RULE 18. 
The verbs which follow bid, 
dare.feel,hear ,let,mdke,need, 
see, &c. are used in the infi- 
nitive mood without having 
the sign to prefixed to them. 



Declension of the personal Pronouns. 

FIRST PERSON, SECOND PERSO!J. THIRD PERSON. 

Singular. Singular. Singular. 

{>0"»- I, Norn, thou, Nom. he, 

Po8«. my or mine, Poss. thy or tliine. Poss. his, 

Obj. me. Obj. thee, ' Obj. him. 

Plural. Plural. Plural. 

Nam. we, Nom. ye or you, Nom. they, 

Posh, our or ours, Por.s. vour or yours, Poss. tlieir br theirs, 

iiifi,"^'i. ^^^- •''"'• ^^J- "'^'"- ""./• '■""'"*■ ^"J- "'"'"■ 

When the noun self'xs added to the personal pronouns, as, himself , myself , itself , themselves, &lc .they are used in- 
differently in the nominative or objective case, but have no possessive. 

A list of the pronominal Adjectives. 

One, other, another, each, every, either, neither, this, that, these, those, all, any, both, same, such, some, former; 
latter, none. Of these, one and other are declined the same as nounsi Another is also declined, but wants the plural 



THIRD PERSON. 


THIRD PERSON. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


Nom. she, 


l\om. it. 


Poss. her or hers, 


Poss. its. 


Obj. her. 


Obj. it. 


Phtral. 


Plural. 


Nom. they. 


Nom. they. 


Poss. their or theirs. 


Poss. their or theirs. 


Obj. them. 


Obj. them. 



Comparison of Adjectives. 

Positive, wise i Comparative, wlsCT ; Superlative, wiBest. — fos, amiable ; Com,more amiable j iSVp.most amiable. — 
Pos. able ; Com. less able ; Sup. least able, ' 



Declension of the relative Pronouns. 

Singular and Plural, 
Nom. who, Poss. whose, Obj, whom. 

Nom. whoever, Poss. whosever, Obj. whomever, 
Nom. whosoever, Poss. whosesoever, Obj. whomsoever.' 
Which, what, and that, are of both numbers, and are 
used in the nominative or objective case, but have no pos- 
sessive ; except that whose is sometimes used as the pos- 
sessive of lohich ; as, " The tree whose mortal taste brought 
death." Who, whose, and lohom, are applied to persons, 
and lohich, to things or brutes. That, is .applied both to 
persons and things. When the word ever or soever is an- 
nexed to relatives, they are, sometimes, called compound 
relatives. 



Declension of JVouns. 



* .Auxiliary, or helping 
and shall "*' ■ ■ • - 



Sing. 
Nom, king 
Poss. king's 
Obj. king ■ 



Plu. 

Nom. kings 
Poss. kings' 
Obj. kings. 



Sing. 
Nom. man 
Poss, man's 
Obj, man 



Plu, 
Nom, men 
Poss, men's 
Obj. men. 



iion/, or helpinir verba, are thoso by the help of which the English rerhg arc principally conjugated. 
. i hose which are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs, are do, be, have, ma will. 



Thoso which aro always auxiliaries, are may, can, must, might, could, would, should, 



I 



"«'^-'-'^' 



IS 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CjtRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing correctly. 
It is divided into four parts; Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody, 
Orthography teaches the nature and powers of letters, and the just method of spelling words. 
Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their derivation. 
Syntax treats of the agreement, government, and proper arrangement, of words and sentences. 
Prosody treats of the just pronunciation of words, and the laws of versification. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



J^L LETTER is the first principle, or least part of a word. 

There are twenty-six letters in the EngUsh language, called the English 
Alphabet, namely, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, ^, j, k, I, to, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, 
V, w, X, y, z ; and these are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter which makes a full and distinct sound of itself. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u; and w and y are considered as vowels, except at 
the beginning of words. 

A consonant is a letter which cannot make a distinct sound, without the help 
of a vowel. All letters except the vowels are consonants. 

Consonants are sometimes divided into mutes and semivowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all without the help of a vowel. They are, 
h, p, t, d, h, and c and g hard. 

The semivowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are/, I, m, n, r, 
V, s, 2, X, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semivowels, namely, I, to, n, r, are also distinguished by the name 
of liquids, from their readily uniting with other consonants, and flowing, as it 
were, into their sounds. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable ; as, om in sound. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one syllable ; as, eau in beauty. 

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded ; as oi in 
voice. 

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded ; as, ea in eagle. 

SOUJVDS OF THE LETTERS. 



A has four sounds. First, the long slender English sound, as infate,paper, &c. 
Second, the long Italian sound, as in far, fa-ther, pa-pa, ma-ma : Third, the 
hroad German sound, as in fall, wall, wa-ter : Fourtifi, the short Itahan sound, as 
in fat, mat, mar-ry. The long Italian sound of o is often styled the middle sound. 

There are two cases in which a varies from the above description ; first, a in 
cedar and liar sounds like u short. Second, a in cabbage, fruitage, sounds Uke 
i short. 

Aa in proper names, generally, sounds like a short ; as in Balaam, Canaan, 
Isaac ; but not in Baal, Gaal. 

Ae has the sound of long e. It is often found in Latin words. Some au- 
thors retain this form ; as, anigma, aquator, JEsop, &c. ; but others have laid it 
aside, and write enigma, Cesar, Eneas, &c. 

Ai has the sound of a long, as in paid; of a short, in raillery ; of e short, in 
said, saith, again, waistcoat. 

Ao has the sound of a long, in gaol, pronounced jale. 

Au sounds like a long, m guage ; like a middle, in aunt, jaunt ; and like a 
broad, in laud, fraud, sauce, saucy. It has the sound of long o, in hautboy ; and 
that of o short, in laurel, laudanum, &c. 

Aw has always the sound of broad a ; as in bawl, scrawl, dawn, fawn, pawn. 

Ay, like its near relation ai, has the sound of a long ; as in day, pray, delay, 
and of cz in says. 

B 

B has but one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle, and end of words ; as 
in baker, number, rhubarb. It is silent before t, and after m, in the same syllable ; 
aB, lamb, debt, subtle. In other words, besides being silent, it lengthens the syl- 
lable ; as in climb, comb, tomb. 



C has two sounds ; first, hard, like i, before a, o, u, I, r, t; as in cart, cottage, 
curious, cloth, tract, craft, &c. ; second, soft, like s, before e, i, and j/ ; as in 
centre, civil, cymbal, &c. When c ends a word, or syllable, it is always hard, as 
in music, flaccid, siccity, pronounced mu-sik, flak-sid, sik-sity. It has sometimes 
the sound of sh ; as in ocean, social. 

C is silent in some words, as in Czar, victuals, indict. 

Ch is commonly sounded like tsh ; as in church, chin, chaff, charter ; but in 
words derived from the Greek, has the sound of k ; as in chymist, scheme, chorus, 
chyle, distich : and in foreign names ; as, Achisk, Baruch, Enoch, &c. It sounds 
like sh, after Z or w ; as, filch, branch, and in words derived from the French ; 
as in chaise, chagrin, chevalier, machine. Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds 
like fe; as in archangel. Archipelago, architect, archives, archetype; except in 
arched, archery, archer, archenemy ; but before a consonant it always sounds like 
tch ; as in archbishop, archduke, archpresbyter, &c. In choir, and chorister, the 
ch is pronounced like qu ; in ostrich, like dgde, as if spelled ostridge. Ch is 
silent in schedule, schism, and yacht ; pronounced seddule, sizm, and yot. 

D 

D has one uniform sound, as in day, red ; unless it may be said to take the 
sound of t, in stuffed, tripped, &c. pronounced stuft, tript, &c. 

D, like (, to which it is so near related, when it comes after the accent, and is 
followed by the diphthongs ie, io, ia, or eou, slides into gzh, or the consonant j .•* 
thus soldier, grandeur, are pronoimced as if written sol-jer, gran-jeur ; and 
verdure, (where it must be remembered that u is a diphthong,) as if written 
ver-jure ; and for the same reason, education is elegantly pronounced ed-jucation, 
although the accent comes after the d. But duJce and reduce, pronounced juke 
and re-juce, where the accent is after the d, cannot be too much reprobated. 

E 

E has two sounds. First, the long sound, as in me, here, me-tre, me-dium ; 
Second, the short sound, as in met, let, get. 

E has a number of irregular sounds. It sounds like a lon^, in there, where, 
they, whey, and e'er ; like a middle, in clerk, sergeant, &c. ; like i short, in yes, 
England, praises, faces, &c. ; like u short, in her, and the unaccented termina- 
tion er, as in reader. E is always silent at the end of a word, except in mono- 
syllables that have no other vowel ; as, he, me, she ; or in words derived from the 
Greek; as, catastrophe, epitome. It "softens the foregoing consonants, and 
lengthens the preceding vowels ; as, force, rage, robe. 

Ea has the sound of a. long, as in great, steak, bear, pear, swear, wear ; of a 
middle, in dearn, heart, hearth ; of c long, as in eat, beat, deacon, treason, plead, 
bohca ; and e short, in head, bread, cleanly, &c. 

Ea7i has the sound of long o ; as in beaii, flambeau, portmanteau. Inbeauty and 
its compounds, it has the sound of long u. 

Ee sounds like e long, as in seek, sweet ; and like i short, in 6een. 

Ei sounds like a long, in vein, reign, feign, deign, reigns, eight, weight, heir, 
veil, streight, freight, feint, skein, neigh, &c. ; Uke e long, in ceil, seize, fiend, 
deceit, either, neither, leisure, obeisance ; like e short, in heifer ; hke i long, in 
height, sleight ; like i short, in teint, forfeit, surfeit, sovereignty, &c. 

Eo sounds like e long, in people; hke e sliort, in leopard, jeopardy ; and in the 

* This rule in not universal. We are generally agreed in aspirating the <J in eommedian, and 
pronounce it commejcam butftiw, if any, can be I'oiind, who aspirate in trajcdian, and pronounce 
It as if written trajejean. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



19 



law terms, feojfee, feoffer, feoffment; like o long, in yeomoai; and like a short, in 
lurgeon, sturgeon, dudgeon, giidgeon, &c. 

Eu sounds like u long, in feud, deuce, eulogy, pleurisy. "When it follows r it 
souttds like oo ; aa in rheum, rheumatism. 

Ew sounds like u long, iafew, neio, dew, &c. pronounced du, nu; and after j, 
r, or ch, it sounds like oo ; as in Jew, crew, chew ; like o long-, in eeiv, shevj, strew, 
shewn, shewbread. 

Ey, when the accent is on it, is always sounded like a long; as iaBey, Dey, 
grey, prey, they, trey, whey, obey, convey, survey, purvey, &c. except in key, ley, 
where it sounds like e long. When this diphthong is unaccented, it takes the 
sound of long e ; as, alley, valley, barley. Eye sounds like i long. 



F has always the same sound ; as in fair : except in of, where it sounds like v. 

G 

G, like C, has two sounds, a hard and a soft one ; hard, as in gay, go ; soft, 
like j, as in gentle, giant. It has generally its soft sound before e, t, and y. In 
other situations, it has, generally, its hard sound, except when preceded by d, or 
followed by e. It is silent when it comes before m, or n ; as in reign, gnat, 
foreign, assign, arraign, &:c. 

Gh, at the beginning of a word, has the sound of the hard g; as, ghost, 
ghastly, aghast, gherkin ; in the middle, and, sometimes, at the end, it is quite 
silent ; as in right, high, plough, mighty. At the end, it has often the sound 
of/; as in laugh, cough, tough, enough, rough; or like k, in hough, lough, 
slifiugh, pronounced hock, lock, tkock. Sometimes the g only is sounded ; as in 
burgh, burgher. 

Gn, at the end of a word, or syllable accented, gives the preceding vowel a 
long sound; as in resign, impugn, oppugn, impregn, impugned; pronounced im- 
pune, imprene, Sac. 

n 

H does not represent any particular sound, but is a mere effort of the breath, 
which modifies the sound of theibllowing vowel ; as, horse, heave, hat. It is al- 
ways silent after r, and, frequently, when preceded by a vowel ; as, rhetoric, 
rhyme, rhapsody, myrrh, forehead. H Anal, preceded by a vowel, is always 
silent ; as, ah .' hah .' oh ! foh .' Sarah, Messiah. At the beginning of words, it 
is always' sounded, except in heir, heiress, honest, honesty, honour, honourable, 
herb, herbage, hospital, hostler, hour, humble, humour, humorous, humorsorne. 



I has two sounds. First, the long diphthongal sound ; as in pine, title : Second, 
the short simple sound ; as in pin, tit-tie. It has a number of irregular sounds. 
Before r it often sounds like u short, as in Jirsl, flirt, sir. In some words it has 
the sound of e long ; as in fatigue, caprice, tontine, machine, bombazine, vMgazine. 
In a few words, it sounds like short a ; as in sirrah. 

la is frequently sounded like ya; as in Christian, filial, poniard ; pronounced 
Christ-yan, &c. It has sometimes the sound of short i; as in carriage, marriage. 
Parliament. 

le sounds like e long, in fiend, grieve, thieve, fief, liege, chief, field, grenadier; 
like e short, in friend, tierce; like i long, in die, hie, lie, pie, tie, vie; like i 
short, in sieve. 

leu and iew have the sound of long u ; as in lieu, view, adieu, purlieu. In one 
word, lieutenant, these letters are pronounced like short e, as if written lev-tenant. 

lo, when the accent is upon the first vowel, forms two «.istinct syllables ; as, 
priory, violet, violent. The terminations lion, and sion, are sounded exactly like 
the word shun, except when the i is preceded by j or a: ; as in question, di- 
gestion, combustion, mixtion, &c. 

lou is sometimes pronounced distinctly in two syllables ; as in bilious, carious, 
abstemious : but these vowels often coalesce into one syllable, pronounced like 
shus; thus, precious, factious, noxious, are sounded as if written presh-us, fac- 
}hus, nok-shus. 

J 

J" sounds exactly like soft g; except in hallelujah, where it has the sotind ofy. 
It is never silent. 

K 

J?" has exactly the sound of hard c, and is used before e and i, where, accord- 
ing to English analogy, c would be soft ; as, kept, king, skirts. It is silent before 
n, as in knife, know, knell, knocker. It is sometimes doubled in proper names ; 
as, Akkub, Bukkiah, Habakkuk, Sic. : but o is used before it, to shorten the vowel 
by a double consonant ; as, cockle, pickle, sucker. 



L has always a soft liquid sound ; as in love, billow, quarrel. 

Some irregularities attend this letter. It has the power of r in colonel, and is 
generally silent before /, k, m, and v, when preceded by a ; as in futlf, calf, be- 
half, talk, chalk, walk, folks, psalm, salmon, almond, cake, halve. It is silent in 
hnlser, chaldron, falcon, &c. and in the auxiliary verbs could, would, should. 
Tlie custom is to double the I at the end of monosyllables ; as, mill, will, fall; 
except when a diphthong precedes it ; as, hail, toil, soil. 

Le, at the end of words, is pronounced like a weak el; in which e la almost 
Bilent ; as, table, shuttle. 

M 

.Vhas always the same sound j as, murmur, momrmtntal; except in CDVfptroU 
kr, which ia pronounced controller. 

N 

JV has two sounds ; Oic one simple ami i}ure : as in vtun, mt Stp: the aflier 

C 



compounded and mixed like ng, as in hang, tJianJc The lalter sound is heard 
when it is followed by c hai-d, g, k, q, or x ; as in concord, anger, blanket, con- 
quer, lynx. 

JVis silent when it ends a syllable, and is preceded by I or 771; as, kUn,lmvm, 
limn, solemn, column, autumn, condemn, contemn. 

o 

O has four sounds. First, the long open sound ; as in no, note, notion : Second, 
the long close sound ; as in move, jirove, which corresponds to the double o .- 
Third, the long broad sound ; as in nor, for, or ■• Fourth, the short broad sound ; 
as in not, hot, got. The long close sound of o is often styled the middle sound. 

Oa sounds like o long, in moat, boat, coat, oat, &c. and like a broad, in groat, 
broad, abroad, &c. 

Oe sounds like o long, in doe, foe, roe, toe; like 00 in canoe, shoe, &c. like w 
short, in does. It has sometimes the sound of long e ; as in phcenix, fatus, 
Antmci : and sometimes of short e; as in (economics, acumenieal. 

Oi has almost universally the double sound of a broad and e long united ; as 
in boil, spoil, toil, oil, soil, joint, point, anoint ; which should never be pro- 
nounced as if written bile, spile, Sic. '' 

Oo almost always preserves its regular sound : it is pronounced long ; as in 
moon, soon, fool, rood, food, mood, &c. This is its regular sound. It sounds like 
o long, in door, floor, pronounced dore,flore; like u middle, in wool, wood, good, 
hood, foot, stood, understood, withstood, &c. and like u short, in blood, flood. 

Ou has seven different sounds. The first and proper sound is equivalent to ow 
in down ; as in bound, found, surround, &c. The second is that of short u ; as in 
enough, cousin, double, trouble, adjourn, journey, touchy, courage, encourage, 
couple, scourge, flourish, nuurish, southern, southward, country, favour, honour, 
famous, Sic. The third is that of 00 ; as in soup, youth, bouse, bousy, surtout, 
croup, group, uncouth, wound, (a hurt,) throughly, you, your, amour, paramour, 
idur, tournament, rendevous, accoutre, billetdoux, &c. The fourth is that of long 
; as in though, although, coulter, court, poultice, soul, source, resource, mour7i, 
bourn, shoulder, borough, thorough, &c. The fifth is like the noun aice, and is 
heard only in ought, bought, brought, sought, besought, fought, nought, thought, 
methought, xuroughl. The sixtli sound is that of short 00, or the middle u, as 
heard only in the auxiliary verbs could, would, should, rhyming with good, hood, 
stood. The seventh sound is that of short 0, and heard only in ccugh, and trough, 
pronounced cof, trof; and in lough, shough, pronounced lock and shock. 

Ow is generally sounded like ou in thou ; as in vow, now, how, cow, sow, 
clown, frown, town, crown, drown, poiver, poioder, vowel, prowess. It sounds like 
o long, in grow, blow, show, know, snow, flown, growth, low, below, owner, 
besiower. Sic. 

Oy is but another form for oi, and is pronounced exactly like it. 



P has but one sound, as in pen. It is silent before s, and also before t, wlien 
preceded by m, as in psalter, empty. 

Ph is generally sounded life/; as in philosophy, pliantom. Sic. In 7icphew and 
Stephen, it has the sound of ti. In diphthong, and triphthong, the sound of^ only 
is heard ; in phthisis, phthisick, and phthisical, both letters are silent. In sap' 
phire, the first p slides into ph. • 

Q 

Q has always the sound of k. It is constantly followed by u, pronounced like 
w; and its general sound is heard in quack, quill, queen. Sic. pronounced 
kwack, kwill, kween. Sic. 

Qw is sometimes sounded like k; as in conquer, liquuT, pronounced konkur. Sic. 

R 

R has two sounds ; one rough ; as in Rome, rage ; the other smooth ; as in 
bard, card. 

Re, at the end of many words, is pronounced like a weak er ; as in theatre, 
sepulchre, massacre, 

s 

S has two different sounds ; one, a sharp, hissing sound, at the beginning of 
words ; as, saint, sister, sell, sun ; tlie other, a soft and flat sound, like s ; as in is, 
his, was, these, those, commas. At the end of words it generally takes the soft_ 
sound. It sounds like z, before ion, if a vowel go before it; as, intrusion; but 
like * sharp, if a consonant precede it ; as, conversion. These two> sounds, ac- 
companied by the aspirate, or h, form all the varieties which are found in 
authors upon tliirietter. 5 is silent in isle, island, aisle, viscount, demcsjie. 

Sc has the power of sfc, before a, o, u, and r; as in scale, sco_ff; sculpture, scrib" 
ble; like soft s, before e, i, and y; as in scene, science, S(ythian. J 



T generally sounds, as in take, temper, y before «, where the accent precedes, 
wunds like tch, or Ish; as in nature, virtue, pronounced as if written na-tshure, 
or na-tchure, vir-tshue, or vir-tchne. The same may be observed of /, when fol- 
lowed by eou, or uou ; as in righteous, piteous, plenteous, unctuous, presumptuous, 
Sic. pronounced righ-tchcous, pit-cheous, plen-tcheous, ung-tchuous, presump-* 
tchuous. Sic. Nor is this tendency of t before long u found only where tlie ac- 
cent immediately precedes ; for we hear Uie same aspiration in this letter in' 
spiritual, spirituous, signature, ligature, forfeiture, as if written spiriishual, 
spiritshv^us, &c. whore the accent is two syllables before these letters ; and tlie 
only termination which seems to refuse this tendency of lire t lo tho aspiration, is- 
that in (vcie; ap, tatitude, Imgih'dc, muiUlude, Sic. 



20 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



Tt before a rowel, ppeceded by s, x, or n, has the sound of tch, or tsh ; as in 
hestial, celestial, frontier, admixlion. Sic. pronounced bes-ichial, ccks-tchial, 
frtm-tcheer, admix-tchion ; but vhen not preceded by s, x, or n, it sounds like sh ; 
as in nation, patient, notion ; except in such words as tierce, tiara, &c. and 
excepting also derivatives from words ending vOity; as, mighty, mightier; I pily, 
thou pitiest, he pities ; twentieth, thirtieth, &c. 

yis silent when preceded by s, and followed by the abbreviated terminations 
en and le ; as in hasten, chasten, fasten, listen, christen, moisten, castle, nestle, 
wrestle, thistle, whistle, epistle, apostle, bustle, &c. which are pronounced as if 
written hace^n, chace''n, cassle, nessle. Sic. In often and soften, the t is silent ; 
also, in mortgage, bankruptcy. 

Til, has two sounds, one soft and flat ; as, thus, v;hether, hither, thither, &c. the 
other sharp ; as in breath, thick, throne, panther, ethics, Thursday. Th is, some- 
times, proaounced like simple t ; as, Thomas, thyme, Thames, asthma, &c. 

u 

U has three sounds. First, the long diphthongal sound; as in tube, cube, 
cubic : Second, the short simple sound; as in tub, cup, sup : Third, the middle 
or obtuse sound ; as in bull, full, pull : In tlais sound we do not pronounce the 
latter part of u quite so long as the oo in pool, nor so short as the u in dull ; but 
with a middle Mund between both, which is the true short sound of the oo in 
r.oo and woo, as may be heard by comparing wco and wool ; the latter of which 
i's a perfect rhyme to bull. 

U has some irregular sounds. When u accented follows r, or ch, in the same 
syllable, it, sometimes, has tlie long sound of oo ; as in true, rule. . It has the 
sound of e short, in bury, and burial; pronounced berry, berrial; and of i short, 
in business ; pronounced bisness. 

Ua sounds like wa, in assuage, persuade, antiquary ; like middle a, in guard, 
guardian, guarantee. 

Ue soui'ds like u long, in clue, cue, due, blue, hue, flue, pursue, &c. like ive 
in quench, querist, conquest, &c. In a few words it is pronounced like e short ; 
as in guest, guess. In some words it is entirely sunk ; as in antique, oblique, 
prorogue, catalogue, dialogue, &c. 

Ui sounds like u long, in suit, sluice, juice, pursuit, Szc. When ui follows 6 
or g, the M is silent, and the g has its hard sound ; as in guide, guile, guild, build, 
guilt, disguise, beguile, guinea, &c. It sounds like wi, in languid, anguish, 
quickly, extinguish. Sac. like oo, in fruit, bruise, recruit, &c. 

Uo sounds like wo ; as in quote, quorum, quondam, &c. 

Uy has the sound of long e ; as in obloquy, soliloquy ; pronounced obloquee, 
&c. ; except buy, and its derivatives. 

Uai has the sound of wa ; as in quail, quaint, acquaintance. 

Uea and uee sound like wee ; as in squeak, squeal, squeamish, squeeze, queer. See. 

Uoi and uoij sound like woi; as in quoif, quoiffure, quoit, quoin, and buoy. 

V 

F'has the sound of flat /; and bears the same relation to it as s does to *. It 
has one uniform sound, as in voice, vanity, love; and if ever silent, it is in the 
word twelvemonth, where both that letter and the e, are, in colloquial pronuncia- 
tion, generally dropped, c3 if written tweV month. 

w 

W, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of oo ; as, water, resembles ooater. 
7f^ before h is pronounced as if it were after tlie h; as in ivhy, when; pronoun- 
ced hwy, hwtn. 

?^ before r is always silent ; as in wrack, wrangle, wrap, wrath, &c, and before 
h and the vowel o, when long, as whole, tvho, &c. pronounced hole, hoo, &c. In 
sword, and answer, it is always silent : also in the preposition toward, and towards, 
wronounced as if written toard and toards, rhyming with hoard and hoards ; 
out in the adjectives and adverbs, toward and towardly, froward and frowardly, 
the w is heard distinctly. It is sometimes dropped in the last syllable of 
awkward, as if written awkard ; but this pronunciation is vulgar. W is, often, 
joined to o at the end of a syllable, without affecting the sound of that vowel ; 
as, crow, blow, grow, know, row, tow, &c. 

X 

X has three sounds, viz. It is sounded like s at the beginning of proper names 
of Greek original ; as in XapJhus, Xenophon, Xerxes. 

It has a sharp sound like ks, when it ends a syllable with the accent upon it ; 
OS, exit, exercise, excellence ; or when the accent is on the next syllable, if it 
■begin with a consonant; as, excuse, extent, expense. 

It has, generally, a flat sound like gz, when the accent is not on it, and the 
following syllable begins with a vowel ; as, exert, exist, example; pronounced, 
egzert, egsist. egzample. 

f « Y 

Y, when a consonant, has always the same sound ; as in young ; but, as a vowel, 
it has different sounds. When it follows a consonant, and ends a word or sylla- 
♦)le, it sounds like i long, as in defy, tyrant, reply, &c. but when the accent 
does not fall on it, then it is sounded like e long, as folly, vanity. 

z 

Z sounds like the flat s ; as in freese, frozen, brazen. 

OF SYLLABLES, AND THE RULES FOR ARRANGING TIIEM. 

A s ?Li,ABLE ij a sound, either simple or compounded, pronounced by a single 
impulse of Oie voice, and constituting a word, or part of a word; as, a, an, ant. 

Spelling is tlie art of rightly dividing words into their syllables, or of express- 
ing a word by its proper letters. 

The fallowing are the general rules for the division of words into syllables. 

1. A single consonant between two vowels, must be joined to the latter syl- 
lable ; as, de-light, bri-dal, re-source : except the letter x ; as, ex-ist, ex-omlm; 
an,il except li1:ewiso words conipDimaetl ; as, rrp-m; ■urvcutn, dis'-eaa. 



2. Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not be separated ; as,fa-b[r^ 
sti-fle. But when they come between two vowels, and are such as cannot begin 
a word, tliey must be divided ; as, ut-most, un-der, in-seat, er-ror, r.of-fin. 

3. When three consonants meet in the middle of a word, if they can begin a 
word, and the preceding vowel be pronounced long-, they are not to be sepa- 
rated ; as, de-throne, destroy. But when the vowel of the preceding syllable is 
pronounced short, one of the consonants always belongs to that syllable ; a=, 
dis-traet, dis-prove, dis-train. 

4. When three or four consonants, which are not proper to begin a syllable, 
meet between two vowels, such of them as can begin a syllable belong to the 
latter, the rest to tlie former syllable ; as, abstain, com-plete, em-broil, dan-dler, 
dap-ple, constrain, hand-some, parch-ment. 

5. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be divided into separate sylla- 
bles ; as, cru-ei-, de-ni-al, so-ci-e ty. 

6. Compounded words must be traced into the simple words of which they are 
composed ; as, ice-house, glow-worm, over-power, never-the-less. 

7. Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are generally separated ; 
as, teach-est, teach-eth, teach-ing, teach-er, contend-est, great-er, wretch-ed, good- 
ness, free-dom, false-hood, 

OF WORDS IN GENERAL, AND THE RULES FOR SPELLING THEM, 

WoKDS are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas. 

A word of one syllable is termed a Monosyllable ; a word of t'ns) syllables, a 
Dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable ; and a word of four or more 
syllables, a Polysyllable. 

All words are either primitive or derivative, 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any simpler word in the 
language ; as, man, good, content. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to another word in Englisli 
of greater simplicity ; as, manful, goodness, contentment, Yorkshire.* 

The orthography of the English Language is attended with much uncertainty 
and perplexity. But a considerable part of this inconvenience may be remedied, 
by attending to the general laws of formation ; and, for this end, the learner is 
presented with a view of such general maxims in spelling primitive and deriva 
tive words, as have been almost universally received. 

Rule i. — Monosyllables ending with /, /, or s, preceded by a single vowel, 
double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass. Sic, The only exceptions are, 
of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, and thus. 

RuLji II. — Monosyllaoles ending with any consonant but /, I, or s, and pre- 
ceded by a single vowel, never double the linal consonant; excepting add, ebby 
butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. 

Rule in. — Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form the plurals 
of nouns, tlie persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles, comparatives, and 
superlatives, by changing y into i ; as, spy, spies ; I carry, thou carriest ; Ac 
carrieth, or carries ; carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest. 

The present participle in ing, retains the y, that i may not be doubled ; as, 
carry, carrying ; bury, burying. Sic. 

But y, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is not changed; 
as, boy, boys ; I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, Sic. ; except in lay, pay, and say ; from 
which are formed, laid, paid, and said ; and their compounds, unlaid, unpaid, 
unsaid. Sic. 

Rule iv. — Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon assuming an 
additional syllable beginning with a consonant, commonly change y into i ; as, 
happy, happily, happiness. But when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely 
changed in the additional syllable; as, coy, coyly; boy, boyish, boyhood; annoy. 
annoyer, annoyance ; joy, joyless, joyful. 

Rule v. — Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending with 
a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double tliat consonant, when 
they take another syllable beginning with a vowel ; as, wit, witty ; thin, tlminish ; 
to abet, an abetter ; to begin, a beginner. 

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding syllable, the 
consonant remains single ; as, to toil, toiling ; to offer, an offering ; maid, 
maiden, &c. 

Rule vi. — Words ending with any double letter but /, and taking ness, less, 
ly, or ful, after them, preserve the lettei double ; as, harmlessness, carelessness. 
carelessly, stiffly,, successful, distressful, Sic. But those words which end with 
double /, and take ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, generally omit one /; as, 
fulness, skilncss, fully, skilful, &c. 

Rule vii. — JVess, less,' ly, nnA ful, added to words ending with silent e, do 
not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful; except in a few words; 
as, duly, truly, awful. 

Rule viii. — Menl, added to -words ending with silent e, generally preserves 
tlie e from elision ; as, abatement, chastisement, incitemeiit, lie. The Titords judg- 
ment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are deviations from tlie rule. 

Like otlier terminations, ment changes y into i, when preceded by a couso» 
nant; as, accompany, accompaniment; merry, merrivient. 

Rule ix. — Mle and ible, when incorporated into words ending with silent f, 
almost always cut it ofl'; as, blame, blamable ; cure, cicrable ; sc7ise, scrisible. Sic. 
but if c or g- soft comes before e in the original word, the e is then preserved in 
words compounded with able ; as, change, changeable ; peace, peaceable, Sic. 

llvLE X. — When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent e, tlic e is 
almost universally omitted; as, place, placing; lodge, lodging; slave, slavish; 
prude, prudish. 

Rule xi. — Words taken into composition, often drop those letters which wcro 
superfluous in the simple words ; as, handful, dunghil, withal, also, chilblain, &c. 

• A compound worj is included onder tbe head of derivative WfrJs : (B< ftnknift, ttorvj; tmkin[- 
gta'ssi Di»y ^ iirdljceil to cUicr vi-grts sf greatet simjUciy. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



21 



ETYMOLOGY. 

There are, in English, ten sorts of words, or, as they are commonly called, parts of speech, namely, tiie 
Article^ JYoun^ Pronoun^ Jldjective^ Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, Conjmiction, and Interjection. 



\ 



OF ARTICLES. 

An Article is a word placed before nouns to limit their significa- 
tioD ; as, a garden, an eagle, tlie woman. 

There are two article?, a or an, and (he. jS or an is called the indefinite 
article. The is called the definite article. 

The indefinile article limit? the noun to one of a kind, but, generally, to no 
particular one; as, " Give me a book;" that is, any book; "Bring me an 
apple ;" that is, any apple. It can be prefixed to nouns in the singular number 
only. 

The definite article limits the noun to one or more particular objects; as, 
" Give me the book ;" " Bring me the apple ;" meaning some particular book, 
or apple referred to. It is prefixed to nouns, both in the smgular and plural. - " 

There is a seeming exception to the rule respecting the indefinite article ; for a 
is jsed before plural nouns preceded hyfew or many ; as, " A few days ; a great 
many years." It is also used before plural nouns preceded by dozen, hundred, 
OMusand, &c. ; as, " A dozen men ; a hundred years :" but in reality this is not 
an exception, because the adjective, in such cases, indicates one whole number 
consiciered in a collective view : a feto men, means, a small number of men. 
■'^' The indefinite article often includes the meaning oi every and each; as, " He 
inherits an estate of three thousand pounds a year." "They were paid at the 
rate of twenty pounds a man." 

A is used before words beginning with a consonant, or long u; as, a man, a 
tmicorn : An is used before words beginning with a vowel or silent h ; as, an 
acorn, an hour. ' 

The definite article is, sometimes, used before adverbs of the comparative or 
superlative degree, in order to mark the degree more strongly, or to define it 
zuore precisely ; as, " The more I read the book, the better I like it." 

The article is generally omitted before nouns that imply the different virtues, 
vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. ; as, " Prudence is 
commendable ; /akeAoorf is odious ; an^er ought to be avoided." It is not pre- 
fixed to a proper name ; as, Alexander, Cesar, (because that of itself denotes a 
determinate individual or particular thing,) except for the sake of distinguish- 
ing a particular family ; as, " He is a Howard, or of the family of the Howards ;' ' 
or by way of eminence; as, "Every man is not a Newton;" " He has the 
courage oi an Achilles;" or when some noun is understood; as, "He sailed 
down the (river) Thames, in the (ship) Britannia." 
'«•'' Wlien nouns are taken in their most extensive signification, they do not admit 
articles before them ; as, " Dogs are faithful."^^ " Horses are useful." " Man is 
the most noble creature in this lower world." 

Articles are words of great use in speech. Their force consists in pointing or 
singling oat from the common mass, the individual, or individuals, of which we 
mean to speak. 

A or an is more general and unlimited, and is nearly synonymous with one. 
The is more definite and special, and is nearly synonymous with this or that. 

The peculiar use and importance of the articles, will be seen in the following 
examples ; " 2'he son of a king — the son of the king— a son of the king." Each 
of these three phrases has an entirely different meaning, through the diffprent 
application of the two little words a and the. " Thou art a man," is a very 
harmless position ; but, " Thou art /Ae man," (as Nathan said to David,) is an 
assertion capable of striking terror and remorse into the heart. 

It must be recollected that a and an are in reality the same word, the n being 
added merely for the sake of sound ; thus, it would be very disagreeable to say, 
" a elephant, a inch, a hour," and the like. 

Articles are so called from the Latin word arliculus, which signifies, ^ joint or 
small part. 

OF NOUNS. 

A Noun is a word which is the name of any person, place, or thing ; 
as, Man, London, book, virtue. 

Nouns are of two kinds, common and proper. 

Common nouns are the names of whole sorts or spocica ; as, Man, lion, horse, 
tree, city, rirer. 

Proper nouns are the names of individuals; as, George, Eliza, Boston, JVew- 
York. Thames, Potomac. 

When proper nounn have an article annexed to them, they are used as common 
nouns; as, "He is the Cicero of his age;" "He is reading the lives of the 
twelve Ccsars.'''' Common nonns become proper, when applied to the Deity; 
as, King, Father, Lord. To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case> 

GENDER. 

Ge.vder Ls the distinction of eex. There are three genders, ibe 
Masculine, Feminine, and Nenter. 

The masculine gender denotes males ; as, Man, Jlorte, bull. 
The feminine gender denotes females ; as. Woman, diuk, hen. 
The muter gender denotes things Without sex; as) i?ere> heii^p, trie. 



■ Some nouns, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of speech, converted into the 
masculine or feminine gender ; as when we say of the sun, he is setting; and of 
a ship, she sails well. 

Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonly give the masculine gender 
to nouns which are conspicuous for the attributes of imparting, or commuaica- 
ting, and which are by nature strong and effica :;ious. Those, again, are made 
leminine, which are conspicuous lor the attributes of containing or bringing 
forth, or which are peculiarly beautiful or amiable. Upon these principles, the 
sun is said to be masculine • and the moon, being the receptacle of the sun's 
light, to be feminine. A ship, a country, a city, &c. are likewise made feminine, 
being receivers or containers. Time is always masculine, on account of ita 
mighty efficacy. Virtue is feminine from its beauty, and its being the object of 
love. Fortune, and the Church are generally put in tlie feminine gender. 

On this fiction, called personification, depends much of the descriptive force 
and beauty of poetry. 

Nouns that denote creatures whose sex is not known, or has not been deter« 
mined by the custom of language, may be esteemed neuter; as, bird, fish, mole, 
fiy, &c. 

The English language has three methods of distinguishing the sex, viz. 





1. By different words ; as, 




Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor. 


. Maid. 


Husband, 


Wife. 


Boar. 


Sow. 


King. 


Queen. 


Boy. 


Girl. 


Lad. 


Lass. 


Brother. 


Sister. 


Lord. 


Lady. 


Buck. 


Doe. 


Man. 


Woman, 


Bull. 


Cow. 


Master. 


Mistress. 


Bullock OT \ ' 
Steer. \ 


Heifer* 


Milter. 


Spawner, 




Nephew. 


Niece. 


Cock. 


Hen. 


Ram. 


Ewe. 


Dog. 
Drake. 


Bitch, 
buck. 


Singer. 


; Songstress or 
\ Singer. 


Earl. 


Countess. 


Sloven. 


Slut. 


Father. 


Mother. 


Son. 


Daughter. 


Friar. 


Nun. 


Stag. 


Hind. 


Gander. 


Goose. 


Uncle. 


Aunt. 


Hart: 


Roe. 


Wizard. 


Witch. 


Horse. 


Mare, 








2. By a difference of termination 


; as, 


Hide. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot, 


Abbess. 


Landgrave. 


Landgravine. 


Actor. 


ActxesiS. 


Lion. 


Lioness. 


Administrator. 


Administratrix. 


Marquis. 


Marchioness. 


Adulterer. 


Adulteress. 


Master. 


Mistress. 


Ambassador, 


Ambassadress. 


Mayor. 


Mayoress, 


Arbiter. 


Arbitress. 


Patron, 


Patroness, 


Baron. 


Baroness, 


Peer. 


Peeress, 


Bridegroom. 


Bride. 


Poet. 


Poetess. 


Benefactor. 


Benefactress. 


Priest. 


Priestess. 


Caterer. 


Cateress. 


Prince. 


Princess. 


Chanter. 


Chantress. 


Prior. 


Prioress. 


Conductor, 


Conductress-. 


Prophet. 


Prophetess* 


Count. 


Countess. 


Protector. 


Protectress. 


Deacon- 


Deaconess. 


Shepherd. 


Shepherdess. 


Duke. 


Dutchess. 


Songster. 


Songstress. 


Elector. 


Electress. 


Sorcerer. 


Sorceress. 


Emperor. 


Empress. 


Sultan. 


< Sultaness or 

\\ Sultana. 


Enchanter. 


Enchantress. 


Executor. 


Executrix. 


Tiger. 


Tigress. 


Governor. 


Governess-. 


Traitor. 


Traitress. 


Heir. 


Heiress. 


Tutor. 


Tutoress. 


Hero. 


Heroine. 


Viscounti 


Viscountess, 


Hunter. 


Huntress. 


Votary. 


Votaress. 


Host. 


Hostess. 


Widower, 


Widow. 


Jew. 


Jewess. 






3. 


By prefixing some word imilcatihg 


sex; £is, 


A co<ik-sparrow. 




A hen-sparrow. 


A man-servant. 




A maid-servant. 


A he-goat 






A she-goat. 


A he-bear. 






A she-bear. 


A male child. 




A female chilJ. 


Male descendants. 




Female dtacend' 



U sometimes happens, that Uie sane noun is eUher masculine or feminine. 
The words parent, child, comirh, friend, neighbour, servant, an;! several olhcrf, 
ar,c used Ihtlifferct^ly fhr males or females. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



Nonns with variable terminations contribute to conciseness and perspicuity 
of expression. We have only a sufficient number of them to make us feel our 
want : for when we say of a woman, she is a philosopher, an astronomer, a 
builder, a weaver ; we perceive an impropriety in the tei-mination, which we 
cannot avoid: but we can say, she is a botanist, a student, a witness, a scholar, 
an orphan, a companion, because these terminations have not annexed to them 
the notion of sex. 

PERSON. 

Person is the quality of the noun which modifies the verb. There 
are three persons, the first, second, and third. 

The first -person denotes the person speaking. 

The second person denotes the person or thing spol^en to. 

The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of. Nouns have but 
two persons, the second, and third;* as. Second person — '^John, bring me that 
book." Third person — " John is a good scholar." 

NUMBER. 

Number is the distinction of one from many. Nouns have two 
numbers, the singular and plural. 
The singular number denotes but one object ; as, book, chair, table. 
The plural number denotes more objects than one ; as, books, chairs, tables. 
The plural number is generally formed by adding s to the singular ; as, sea, 
seas ; hand, hands '; pen, pens ; grape, grapes ; vale, vales ; vow, coivs. When 
the letter i does not combine in sound with tlie word, or last syllable of it, the 
addition of s increases the number of syllables ; as, house, houses ; grace, graces ; 
page, pages ; rose, roses ; voice, voices ; mase, mazes. When the noun ends in x, 
ss, sh, or soft ch, the plural is farmed by adding es to the singular ; for a single « 
after those letters cannot be pronounced; as, fox, foxes ; glass, glasses; brush, 
brushes ; church, churches : but when the nouns end in ch hard, like k, the plu- 
ral is formed by « only ; as, monarch, monarchs. Nouns v/hich end in o, have 
sometimes es added to form the plural ; as, cargo, cargoes ; echo, echoes ; hero, 
heroes ; negro, negroes ; manifesto, manifestoes ; potato, potatoes ; volcano, vol- 
canoes ; wo,' woes; and sometimes only J ; as, folio, folios ; punctilio, punctilios ; 
seraglio, seraglios. When a noun ends with y preceded by a consonant, the plu- 
ral is formed by dropping y and adding ics ; as, vanity, vanities ; body, bodies ; 
assembly, assemblies ; but when preceded by a vowel, a, e, or o; s only is added ; 
a?, valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys-; money, moneys ; joy, joys ; key, keys ; de- 
lay, delays ; attorney, attorneys. 

Note I. — We sometimes see valley, chimney, money, journey, attorney, and 
a few otliers of the like terminations, written in the plural with ies — vallies, 
chimnies, attornies ; but this irregularity is not to be vindicated ; the plural of 
key may be written kies with equal propriety. 
— Note 2. — A few English nouns deviate from the foregoing rules in the forma- 
tion of the plural number. - 

Class 1. Many nouns ending in /, or fe, form their plural by changing the 
termination into r;M ; as, life, lives; knife, knives; wife, wives; leaf, leaves ;jcalf, 
calces; self, selves; half, halves; beef, beenes ; staff, staves; loaf, loaves; sheaf, 
sheaves ■ shelf, shelves ; loolf, wolves ; wharf, wharves ; thief, thieves. Some nouns 
of the like endings form their plural by the addition of s ; as, grief, griefs ; re- 
lief, reliefs ; reproof, reproofs ; and a few others. I'hose Vt'hich end in jf have 
the regular plural; as, ruff, ruffs; except in staff, slaves. 

Class 2. The second class consists of words which are irregular in the 
formation of their plural ; as, yn/in, men ; woman, women ; child, children ; foot, 
feet ; tooth, teeth ; ox, oxen ; goose, geese ; beau, beaux ; brother, brothers or 
brethren ; penny, pennies or pence ; die, dies or dice ; pea, peas or pease ; index, 
indexes^ or indices; basis, bases; emphasis, emphases; hypothesis, hypotheses; 
■parenthesis, parentheses ; ellipsis, ellipses ; seraph, seraphim ; cherub, cherubim ; 
radius, radii; phenomenon, phenomena ; genius, geniiX or geniuses ; axis, axes; 
criterion, criterions or criteria ; medium, mediums or inedia ; memorandum, memo- 
randums or memoranda ; encomium, encoiniums or encomia. 

Class 3. The third class of irregulars consists of sucli as have no plural 
termination ; some of wh\ch do not admit cf plurality ; as, rye, barley, Jlcur, 
htmp, flour, sloth, pride, pitch; and the names of metals ; as, gold, silver, tin, lead, 
rjuicksilver, &c. Other words in this class are alike in both niunbeis ; as, cattle, 
sheep, swine, deer, trout, salmon, and many other names of fi*h. 

Ci/ASS 4. The fourth class of irregular nouns consists of words which have 
the plural termination only. Some of these denoting plurality, are always join- 
ed with verbs in the plural ; as tlie following ; annals, archives, ashes, belters, 
bowels, compasses, clothes, breeches, draiccrs, dregs, embers, entrails, fettcri, filings, 
goods, hatches, ides, lees, lungs, nippers, pincers or pinchers, s?iuffcrs, shears, 
scissors, shambles, tidings, tongs, thanks, vitals, victuals, &c. Other words of 
this class, though ending in s, are used either wholly in the singular uunibor, or 
in the one or tlie other, at the pleasure of tlie writer ; as, alms, bellows, gallows, 

* TliR i^crsan, who speftUs, is always represented by a pronoun, and not by a noun; and, thtirii- 
f"rc, we iiiive no form of the verb, of the first pei-eon, to agree with a nnun. Peter may aay, 
** / am tlie man-," but he cannot say, with propriety, " Fete" am the man.*' He may spe;ik ojhlin- 
sclf, and say, " Peter ja the man." When noun.'^ are put in apposition with pronoun.^, of the first 
ficrstm. they have the appearance of being- in the first person also; but even in this case, the noun Is 
in the third person, and tiie verb ajjrees, in person, with the pronoun; as, " Tell your j^eneral, that /, 
A^apotcoii lionapurte, am here." That the noun, in this sentence, is actually in trie third person, may 
be seen by making use of a relative, referring to the pronoun, or noun, for its antecedent ; nud whirli, 
according to rule, may ap;fee in person with either. If we make it agree with the pronoun, it must 
toe of the fust person, an(l must have a verb of ihe first person ; as, •' I, Napoleon Bonaparte, w/io 
command the French army, am here." But if the relative agree with the noun, it must be of the 
third person, and must have a verb of the third person ; as, " 1, Napoleon Bonaparte, U'/ioca7n7rtan(/s 
the French army, am here." A noun Is never used in I'ne second person, except when an address is 
CDlde ; la which case, it is always iflthc oominstive case independent. 

t /-nifej-f J, when It signifies pointers, or tables of ctntcnts; Indicei, when referring to algeljraio 
quantities. 
I G'nli, whc^ denoting ttcrial spirits j geniuns, Wlrcn signifying prrsoirs of genius. 



odds, meant, pains, news, riches, ivagcs, billiards, sessions, nuaslts, hyslerirs^ 
physics, acoustics, pneumatics, tactics, mathematics, mechanics, polities. Of thpse, 
pains, riches, and wages, are more usually considered as plural — neics is always 
singular — odds and means are either singular or plural — the others are more 
strictly singular. 

_/- CASE. 

Case is the different state or situation of nouns with regard to 
other words. Nouns have three cases, the nominative, possessive, 
and objective. 

The nominative case is the actor, or subject of the verb ; as, " The boys 
play ;" " The girls learn." It generally comes before tlie verb. - 
' The possessive case denotes property or possession. It is generally formed by 
adding s^to a noun with an apostrophe ; thus, " John's book." When the plu- 
ral ends in s, the apostrophe only is added ; as, " On eagles' wings." And wheji 
the singular number ends in es or ss, the additional s is generally omitted ; as, 
" Achilles'' shield ;" <' For goodness'' sake.'! When the letter s, added as the sign 
of the possessive, will coalesce Avith the name, it is pronounced in tlie ?ame syl- 
lable ; as, " Peter'' s cane." But if it will not coalesce, it adds a syllable to tlie 
word; as, " Tliomas's bravery," pronounced as if written Thomasis — "The 
Church'' s prosperity," Churchis prosperity. 

■ The objective case is the object on which the action of a verb or participle 
terminates, or the object of a preposition ; as, " Alexander conquered tlie 
Persians ;" " They live in London.'''': In the first sentence, the action of con- 
quering terminates on the object, Persians. 

^Th^ nominative and objective cases, of nouns, have always the same form, and 
are distinguished only by their different offices. The possessive case is always 
known jDy its ending. 

Nouns are declined in the following manner. 
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

J^orru King J^om. Kings JVom. Man JVoffj. Men 

Pos. King's Pas. Kings' ^ Pos. Man's Pas. Men's 

Obj. King. Obj. Kings. .'' Obj. Man. Obj. Men. 

Js'ouns are so called from the Latin word nomen, which signifies a name, 

OF PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too frc-> 
quent repetition of the same word ; as, " The man is happy ; he is 
benevolent ; h& is useful." 

There are two kinds of pronouns, personal and relative. 

Personal pronouns stand immediately for the name of some person or thing ; 
as, " / write ; thei; play." 

Relative pronouns relate, in general, to some preceding noun, or sentence, call- 
ed the antecedent ; as " The general, who commands the army, is an accomplished 
officer." In this sentence, general is the antecedent, and who is the relative. The 
same that belong to nouns, belong also to pronouns. They have three persons : 
Gender has respect ouly to the third person singular of the pronouns, he, she, it, - 

There are five persottal pronouns, with their variations to express number 
paid case ; viz. /, the person who speaks ; thou, the person to whom a speech is 
directed ; and he, she, or it, the person or thing spoken of. 

This account of perrons will be very intelligible, when we reflect, that there 
are three persons who may be the subject of a discourse : first, the person who 
speaks, may speak of himself; secondly, he may spealc of tlie person to whom 
he addresses himself; thirdl}', he may speak of some other person ; and as the 
speakers, the persons spoken to, and the other persons spoken of, may be many, 
so each of these persons must have the plural number. 

The objective case of pronouns has, in general, a form different from that of 
the nominative or possessive case. 

The personal pronouns are thus declined. 



Stnguiar. 
JVb»i. I, 

Pos. mj' cr mine, 
Olij. me, 

StnguJtcr. 
JVo7». thou, 
Pos. th)' or thine, 
Obj. thee. 



Singular, 
JVom. he, 
Pos. his, 
Obj. him. 

,Sing^dar. 
JVom. site, 
Pos. her or litr.", 
Obj. her. 

Singuliir.- 
.'Vow. it, 
Pos. its, 
Ot>j, it. 



FIRST PERSON. 

Plural 
JVom. \»'e, 
Pos. our or ours, 
Obj. us. 

SECONn PERSON. 

Plural. 
JVom. yc or you, 
Pos. your or yours, 
Obj. you. 

Tiriirl) PERSON. 

Plural. 

A"om. tlicy, 

Pos. their or theirs^ 

Obj. tliom. 

Plural. 
JVom. they, 
Pos. their or theirs, 
Obj. them. 

Plural. 
JVom. they, 
Pos. their or their?, 
()&?. them. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



23 



Whefe vhcre are two forms of the possessive case, as thy or Ihine, the former is 
used with a noun ; the latter when the noun is understood but not expressed. 

77ioa is here given as the second person singular; but common custom has 
set aside the rules of a^rammar in this case, and we generally make use oSyou in- 
stead of thou. Thus, instead of saying, thou M'ast ; we say, you were. In short, it 
may be remarked, once for all, that thou and ye are the second person, used 
in sacred or solemn style ; and that yov, is the second person, used in common or 
fkmiliar style, instead of either of thera. 

-^ The noun sf.lf is frequently joined witli the personal pronouns ; as, himself, 
herself, itself, myself, yourself: and expresses emphasis or apposition, or forms 
what some call a reciprocal pronoun : but such compound pronouns are still 
properly termed personal pronuuns. They are indifferently used in the nomi- 
native or objective, ^^elf, in modern style, is never added to Aw, their, mine, or 
thine ; but himself, themselves, are now used in the nominative case, instead of 
hisset,, theirselves ; as, "He came himself;" "He himself shall do this;" 
" They performed it themselves.''' 

-<ro mark possession in a more emphatical manner, we often join the adjective 
own to pronouns in the possessive case ; as, ?" He bought the farm with Ms own 
money.' ' 

/ The pronoun it sometimes stands for a sentence or part of a sentence ; as, 
" The Jews, it is well known, were at this time under tne dominion of the Ro- 
mans. '^'Here it represents the whole of the sentence, except the clause in which 
it stands. To understand this, let the order of the words be varied, " The Jews 
were at this time under the dominion of the Romans, it [all that] is weU known." 

" As for the pulling of them down, if the affairs require ti." Require ^yhat? 
" The pulling of them down," — for which part of the sentence it is a substitute. 
" ShaJl worldly glory, impotent and vain, 
That fluctuates like the billows of the main ; 
Shall this with more respect thy bosom move, 
Than zeal for crowns that never fade above i 
Avert t7 Heav'n." 

Avert what.' all that is expressed in the four preceding lines, for which it is 
a substitute. % 

^It, is a term of the greatest universality, and may be applied to any being or 
thing in the universe. -"^CR" the Divine Being we say, it is the Lord who hath 
done this. Of an infant we aay, j< cries. We also say, «7 was you. Who is i/.? 
Was it the lady ? Was it they ? What stone is this ? It is marble. 

//, often represents the condition of persons and things ; as. How is it with 
you ? // is hot ; that is, tlie weather, or a state of things called weather. 

The relative pronouns are who, whose, whom, which, what, and that. All pro- 
nouns, except the relative, are personal. 

fVho, whose, and whom, are applied to persons, and which, to things or brutes ; 
as, " He is a friend, 7^1/10 is faithful in adversity." "This is the tree, which 
produces no fruit." " The bird, which sung so sweetly, is flown." 

That, is applied to both persons and things ; as, " He that acts wisely, de- 
serves praise.' J^^' Modesty is a quality that highly adorns a woman." 
, What, is a kind of compound relative, including both the antecedent and the 
relative, and is mostly equivalent to that which ; as, " I have heard what has 
iieen alleged;" that is to say, " I have heard that which has been alleged," 
or, " the thing which,'''' &c. 

Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined : 
Sirtgular and Plural. 
Nominative, Who, 

Possessive, Whose, 

Objective, Whom. 

IVhich, w^iat, and t/utt, arc likewise of both numbers, and are used in the 
nominative and objective case, but have no possessive ; except that whose is some- 
times used as the possessive case of which ; as, " Is there any other doctrine 
whose followers are unpunished." '*"'• 

" And the fruit 



Of that forbidden tree, w}a»e mortal taste 

Brought death." 

" Pure the joy without allay, 



MILTOir. 



YOUNG. 



Whose very rapture is tranquillity." 
" The lights and shades, whose well accorded strife, 
Gives all the strength and colour of the life." POPE, 

" This is one of the clearest characteristics of its being a religion whose origin 
is divine." blair. 

By the use of this license, one word is substituted for three ; as, " Philosophy, 
vhose end is to instruct us in the knowledge of nature ;" for " Philosophy, the 
end of which is to instruct us." 

Who, which, and what, have, sometimes, the words ever and soever annexed to 
them ; as, whoever or whosoever, whichever or ivhichsotver, whatever or whatsoever : 
but they are seldom used in modern style. 

Who, when used in this manner, is thus declined ; 
Singular and Plural. 
J\'om. whoever, Pos. whosever, OhJ. whomever. 

^ J^om. whosoever, Pos, whosesoever, Ohj. whomsoever. 

The word that is a relative pronoun when it may be changed into who or 
which, without destroying the sense ; an adjective, when it belongs to a noun 
expressed or understood, and in all other places it is a conjunction. 

"Who, which, a.n(\ what, when used in asking questions, are sometimes ranged 
under a separate head, and called interrogative pronouns, "flat I have deemed 
this unnecessary. The only difference is, that without an interrogation, the 
n relatives have reference to a subject which is antecedent, definite, and known ; 
ti'ilh an interrogation, to a subject which is subsequent, indefinite, and iintentrvvn-, 
ami wfhch it is expected that (he answer should express an-l ascert?.iu, 



Which, sometimes refers to a sentence or part of a sentence for its antece- 
dent ; 05, " W^e are required to fear God and keep his commandments, which 
is the whole duty of man." -*' AVhat is the whole duty of man ? " To fear God 
and keep his commandment'!.''^ 

The personal pronouns are often used as antecedents; as, "/, that speak in 
righteousness, am mighty to save."/*' He, who obeys not the laws, is a bad man." 
"She, who plays on the spinet, is a beautiful young lady." In these sentences, 
/, He, She, are antecedents. 

- Which and what, are sometimes used as adjectives ; as "^Vhich book will you 
take .■"' "In what character shall you appear?" 

'T The word as is sometimes used as a relative pronoun, and is equivalent to 
which, or that; as, " The same arguments are applicable, as were applied to 
the tlieory of uniformity of perceptions." /Here as is precisely synonymous with 
which : it refers to arguments,' and is the nominative to, were applied. 

" On his return to Egj'pt, he levied a mighty army, as I learned from the 
same authority." Here as represents all that precedes it. 

Pronouns are tlie class of words most nearly related to nouns ; being, as the 
name imports, representatives, or substitutes of nouns. Accordingly, they are 
subject to the same laodification with nouns, of number, gender, and case. But 
with respect to gender, we may observe, that the pronouns of the first and 
second persons, as they are called, / and thoii, do not appear to have had tiia 
distinction of gender given them in any language ; for this plain reason, that, as 
they always refer to persons who are present to each other when they speak^ 
their sex is commonly known, and therefore needs not be marlied by a mascu- 
line or feminine pronoun. But as the third person may be absent, or unlaiown, 
the distinction of gender here becomes necessary ; and accordingly it has in 
English all the three genders belonging to it: He is masculine, she is feminine, 
it is neuter. 

We have observed that the use of pronouns is to prevent the repetition of 
nouns, and to make speaking and writing'more rapid and les? encumbered with 
words. An example will make this clear to the learner. " A woman went to 
a man, and told him, that he was in great danger of being murdered by a gang 
of robbers, who had made preparations for attacking him. He thrnkcd her for 
her kindness, and as he was unable to defend himself, he went to a neighbour's." 
Now, if there were no pronouns, this sentence would be written as follows : — 
" A woman went to a man, and told the man, that the man was in great danger 
of being murdered by a gang of robbers ; as a gang of robbers had made pre- 
parations for attacking the trmn. The man thanked the woman for the k'onian's 
kindness, and as the man was unable to defend the man's self, the man left the 
man's house and went to a neighbour's." 

Pronouns are, at once, the most general, and the most particular words in 
languages. They are commonly the most irregular and troublesome words to 
the learner, in the grammars of all tongues ; as being the words most in common 
use, and subjected thereby to the greatest variety. 

Pronouns are so called from the two Latin words pro and nomen, which sig- 
nify for a noun, or for a name. 

OF ADJECTIVES. 

' An Adjective is a word which expresses some quality or property 
of a noun ; as, " A good scholar, a virtuous action, \\ fine picl\ire." 

In English, the adjective is not varied on account of gender, number, or case. 
Thus we say, " A car«Ze.M boy ; care/ess girls." 

Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They have 
three degrees of comparison, the positive, comparative, and superlative. 

The positive degree expresses the quality of an object without any increase or 
diminution ; as, wise, great, good. 

The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in signification ; str, 
wiser, greater, less wise. 

The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive in the highest or lowest 
degfree ; as, wisest, greatest, least wise. 

Adjectives, or terms of quality, are a very plain and simple class of worJsf 
The name in its full literal sense means something added to something else. 
Therefore this part of speech consists of words which are added or put to 
nouns, in order to express something relating to them. They generally exprers 
the qiialities of nouns, but this is not always the case ; for there are some ad- 
jectives which have nothing to do with quality. But all adjectives express 
some qualit)', some property, some appearance, or some distinctive circum- 
stance belonging to the nouns to which tliey are joined ; as, " An industrious 
man; A virtuous vfoman ; A short m&n; £oc/i book ; £re7^tree; TAa; pen." 

Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative degree is formed 
by the addition of r or er, and the superlative by et or est ; as. 
Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Large, Larger, Largest. 

Small, Smaller, Smallest. 

Or by prefixing the adverb more for the comparative degree, and most for (lie 
superlative ; as. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

wise, more wise, most wise, 

virtuous, more virtuoup, most virtuous. 

The comparative dcsrree is, sometime?, formed by prefixing the adverb iHs, 
and the superlative by least ; tu". 

Positive. Comparative. Superhitive. 

Amiable, less amiable, least amiable. I 

Able, less able, least able. 

Adjectives of but one syllable are, for tlie most part, compared by rr and est . 
atid thgse of more syllables than one, by rmn and most; as, mild, miliicr, miWcsr- 



24 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



fruo^l, more frugai, most frugal- Some adjectives may be compared with equal 
jwopriety by tr and es/, or by more and most. In such cases, the easy flow and 
perspicuity of the style should be regarded. 

In some words the superlative degree is formed by adding the adverb most to 
the end of them ; as, nethermost, uppermost, foremost. 

The following adjectives are irregularly comparfid. 
Positive Comparative. Superlative. 

good, better, best, 

bad, worse, worst, 

little, less or lesser, least, 

much or manj', more, most, 

near, nearer, nearest or nest, 

late, later, • latest or last, 

far, farther, farthest. 

'Adjectives which cannot be increased or decreased in their signification, do 
not admit of comparison ; as, all, any, round, square. One, two, tliree, twenty, 
thirty, &c. are sometimes called numerical adjectives. 

Pronominal adjectives are those which are sometimes used as adjectives, axid 
sometimes as pronouns, partaking of the nature and properties of both. They 
are sometimes called adjective pronouns, and are genersdly marked as pronouns 
in our dictionaries. 

^Pronominal adjectives, when used as pronouns, have number, case, gender, 
*and person ; as, " Both were once mine, but I have parted with one.," When 
joined with nouns, they relate to them as other adjectives ; as, " Both books 
were once mine, but I have parted with one book." 

. A list of the principal Pronominal Adjectives. 

One, other, another, each, every, either, neither, this, that, these, those, all, 
any, both, same, such, some, former, latter, none. ' Of these, one and olher are 
thus declined. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. 



Singular, 
Kom. one 
Pos. one's 
Ohj. one 



Plural. 
J^oni. ones 
Pos. ones' 
Obj. ones. 



Singular. 
JVom. other 
Pos. other's 
Obf. other 



Plural. 
J^om. others 
Pos. others' 
Obj. others. 



Another, is declined in the same manner, but wants the plural. Former and 
latter, have sometimes a possessive case; as, " The former'' s phlegm, was a check 
upon the /a</er''« vivacity." 

The following remarks and examples will serve to exemplify the pronominal 
adjectives. 

^ Some, othar, any, one, all, such, none, are sometimes called the indefinite kind, 
because they express their subjects in an indefinite manner. / 

One, when confined to niunber, is used as an adjective ; a^, " God hath made 
of one blood all nations of men." When used as a pronoun, it has a general 
signification, meaning people at large ; as, " One, is astonished at the vices of 
men." '^ One is apt to lovo one^s self." This word is often used, by good 
writers, in the plural number ; as, " The great ones of the world." " The boy 
wounded the old bird, and stole the young ones." " My wife and little ones are 
in good health.' ' 

The plural others, is only used when apart from the noun to which it refers ; 
as, " When you have perused these papers, I will send you the others.'" The 
singular olher, is used both when the noun is expressed, and when it is under- 
stood; as, " Give me the o//ier ;" or, " Give me the o/Aer book." When this 
word is joined to nouns, either singular or plural, it has no variation ; as, " The 
olher man," " The other men." 

The word another, i" composed of the indefinite article prefixed to the word 
other. 

None, is used in both numbers ; as, " JVone is so deaf as he that will not 
hear." " Kon<u u» them are equal to these." It seems, originally, to have sig- 
nified, according to its derivation, not one, and therefore to have had no plural ; 
but there is good authority for the use of it in the plural number : as, " JVbne 
that go unto her return again." Proo. xi. 19. " Terms of peace tvere none 
vouchsaf'd." Milton. '■^ Kone of them are varied to express the gender." 
" Kone of them liave different endings for the number." Lowth's Introduction. 
^^ None of their productions are extant." Blair. 

' Each, every, eii.her, are sometimes called the distributire kind, because they 
denote the persons, or things, that make up a number, as taken individually. - 

Each, includes all the individuals of a collective number ; as, " Each of the 
men escaped unhurt.'' " He met ten beggars, and gave each a crown." 

Every, includes all the individuals of a collective number, but is never sepa- 
rated from its noun, except in legal proceedings; as in the phrase, "all and 
every of them." It may be used in construction, with a plural noun, implying 
a collective idea ; as, " every seven years." 

Either, signifies only one of two individual persons, or things ; as, '**You may 
choose either of these two apples." To say, " either of the three," is therefore 
improper. 

Neither import?, " not cither ;'''* that is, not one nor the other; as, "Neither 
/5f my friends was there." 

This, that, these, those, are sometimes called the definitive or demonstrative 
kind, because they precisely point nut the nouns to which they relate. 

T7us and these, refer to things nearest or last mentioned ; that and those, to 
things farther distant, or first mentioned ; as, " This house is mine, that is your 
brother's." " The puliv of virtue, and tlie road of vice, are open before you : 
thttl leads to happiness ; this to misery." 

" Some place the blLss in action, some in case, 
Those call it pleasure, and contentment these." 

Adjectives are so called from the two Latin words ad ami jacir>, which signify 
1.0 add to, to join to, to put to ; and this name is given fhom because Ihey are 
^Idcilj or put 1/1 no.nniH 



^ OF VERBS. 

' A Verb is a word which expresses action, or being ; as, *' The 
birds ^2/; the horses run ; the city stands; lam." 

Verbs are of three kinds ; active, passive, and neuter. They are also divided 
into regular, irregular, and defective. 

An active verb denotes action or energy which terminates on some object ; asj 
" Cesar conquered Pompey." " I love Penelope." 

A passive verb denotes action received, or endured, by the person or thing 
which is the nominative; as, " Pompey was conquered by Cesar." " Penelope 
ii loved by me." It is formed by adding a perfect participle of an active verb 
to the verb be through all its various changes of number, person, mood, and 
tense. Passive verbs are so called because the receiver or endurer is passive ; 
that is to say, does nothing. 

A neuter verb denotes simple being or existence, or it denotes action which is 
limited to the subject ; as, " I am, thou sittest, he stands, the birds fiy, Henry 
plays." 

Verbs active are sometimes called transitive : Because the action terminates 
on the object, either expressed, or understood ; a?, " He reads a book." Here 
the object is expressed. "He reads well." Here the object is understood ; 
that is, " He reads words, or language, or books, well." 

Neuter verbs are sometimes called intransitive : Because the action expressed, 
or the manner of existing, that is represented, does not pass over to any object, 
but is wholly confined to tlie actor. 

^ In English, many verbs are used both in an active and neuter signification ; the 
construction only determining of which kind they are ; fis, io flatten, signifying 
to malce even or level, is a verb active ; but when it 'signifies to grow dull or 
insipid, it is a verb neuter. 

/ It is difficult to distinguish, at all times, between tlip active, passive, and 
' neuter verbs : Illustration — " Henry struck John ; Henry was struck by John ; 
Henry plays." 

In the first sentence the verb is active, because the action of striking terminates 
on an object, John. Henry, the nominative, gives the blow, andWoAn, the ob- 
jective, receives it. In the second sentence, the verb is passive, because the 
action of striking, instead of terminating oq the objective case, is received by the 
nominative. John, the objective, gives the blow ; and Henry, the nominative, 
receives it. In the first sentence, Henry does something ; that is, strikes a pei:- 
son. In the second, he dses nothing ; tliat is, another person strikes him. In the 
third sentence the verb is neuter, because the action ofplaying is limited to the 
nominative, and has no influence on any other word. AHen-'y does something, 
but the action is confined to himself — We cannot say, "Henry plays John." 
|Neuter verbs generally express simple being or existence ; but some of them, 
it will be perceived, express the highest degree of action ; as, I run, he played. 
Hence it appears that, action alone does not constitute the active verb : but it 
also implies an object acted upon, expressed, or understood. An active verb may 
be known by its admitting an object after it ; a neuter verb, by its not admitting 
an object ; and a passive verb, by its always admitting of the preposition by or 
icith after it, with a noun or pronoun expressing the agent by which the subject 
or nominative is acted upon ; as, " The master is loved by vac."/ Passive \ erbs 
are formed from active verljs, therefore a neuter verb cannot T)ecome passive ; 
but having, in some degree, the nature of a passive, it admits, in many instances, 
of tlie passive form, retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly in such as sig- 
nify some sort of motion, or change of place or condition ; as, " I am come ; I 
was gone ; I am grown ; I was fallen.'' The same word is sometimes used as a 
passive verb, and sometimes as an adjective ; " Thomas is mistaken by Henry." 
Here mistaken, in union with the verb is, is a passive verb, as it conveys tlie 
idea that Thomas is misunderstood. But when it means tliat Thomas is wrong, 
then the word mistaken is an adjective ; as, " Thomas is mistaken." 
f To verbs belong nfmber, person, mood, and tense. 

OF MIMBER AND PERSON. 

Verbs have two numbers, the singular and the plufal; as, "He nun. 
we run," &c. 
In each number there are three persons ; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

First person. I love. We love. 

Second person. Thou lovest. Ye or you love. 

Third person. He loves. They love. / 

Thus, the verb, in some parts of it, varies its endings, to express, or agree 
witli, different persons cf the same number ; as, " I love, thou lovest, he loveth, 
or loves ;" and also to express different numbers of the same person ; as, " thou 
lovest, ye love ; he loveth, they love." In the plural number of the \ orb, there is 
no variation of ending to express the diflorer)t persons ; and the verb, in tlie 
three persons plural, is the same as it is in the first person singular. Yet tliis 
scanty provision of terminations is sufficient for all tlie purposes of discourse, 
and no ambiguity arises from it : the verb being always attended, either with 
the noun expressing the subject acting or acted upon, or with the pronoun 
representing it. For tliis reason, the plural teriiiination in en, tlioy loven, they 
weren, formerly in use, was laid aside as unnecessary, and has long been obsolete. 

OF HOODS. 

■ Mood or Mode is the manner of representing action or being 

The nature of a mood may be more iutcUigibiy explained to the scholar, by 
observing, tliat it consists in the change which the verb undergoes, to signiJy 
various intentions of the mind, and various modifications and circumstances of 
action : which explanation, if compared with the following account, and lists 
of the (TiTTerent mo^id?-, will lie fwinrt to a^rre wilhj and iritistrate them. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



25 



I There are five mood? of verbs ; the indicativG, subjitnctite, potentiai,, 
tWFiwiTivE, and imperative. 

The Indicalite Mood siinply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question ; 
as, " He loves, he is loved ;^'' " Does he love .?" " Is he loved?-'' 

The Subjunctive Mood expresses action or being in a doubtful or cond-tional 
manner; as, " If he wW^e;" " If thou /earn." The verb, in this mood, is always 
preceded by a conjunction expressed or understood, and is attended by another 
verb; as, " I will respect him, though he chide me;" " Were he good, he 
would be happy ;" that is, " if he u-ere good." 

The Potetilia^ Mood declares the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of 
action or being ; as, " It ma^ rain; he mai/ go, or stay ; I can ride; he couia 
walk ; they should learn.''' 

The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and unlimited manner ; 
having no nominative, consequently neither niunber nor person ; as, " to act, to 
speak, to be feared J''' 

The Imperative Mood commands, exhorts, or entreats ; as, " Depart thou ; 
mind ye ; let us stay ; go in peace." 

OF THE TENSES. 

Tense is the division of lime. 

There are six tenses, the present, imperfect, perfect, PLrPERFECT, 
FIRST FUTUKE, and second future. 

The Present Tense denotes present time ; as, " I rule ; I am ruled ; I think ; 
1 fear.'" ^^i^ 

The present tense likewise expresses a character, quality, &c. at present ex- 
isting; as, "He is an amiable man;" " She is an amiable woman." It is 
sometimes used in speaking of actions continued, with occasional intermissions, 
to the present time , as, " He frequently rides ; and he walks out every morn- 
ing." It is even sometimes applied to represent the actions of persons long 
since dead, as transacting at the present time; as, " Seneca reasons well;" 
" Only by pride cometh contention, sat/s Solomon." 

When the present tense is preceded by the words where, before, after, till, as 
toon as, it is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action, as 
brought into present view ; as, " When the stage arrives, we shall hear from 
home ;" " Before he returns he will probably hear the news ; or at least, soon 
after he arrives.'''' 

In animated historical narrations, the present tense is sometimes substituted 
for the imperfect tense ; as, " He enters the territory of the peaceable inhabit- 
ants ; he fights and conquers, fakes an immense booty, which he divides among 
his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an empty triumph." 
/ The Imperfect Tense denotes past time, however distant ; as, " I loved her for 
ner modesty and virtue ;" " They ^vere travelling post when he met them." 

The Perfect Tense denotes past time, but also conveys an allusion to tlie 
present ; eis, "I have finished my letter ;" " I have seen the person that was 
recommended to me."-""-^- 

In the former example, it is signified that the finishing of the letter, though 
past, was at a period immediately, or very nearly, preceding the present time. 
In the latter instance, it is uncertain whether the person mentioned was seen by 
the speaker a long or short time before. Tlie meaning is, " I have seen him 
some time in the course of a period which includes, or comes to, the present 
time.'' When the particular time of any occurrence is specified, as prior to the 
present time, this tense is not used : for it would be improper to say, " I have 
seen him yesterday ;" or, " I have finished my work last week." In tliese cases 
the imjjerfect is necessary: as, "I saiy him yesterday ;" "{finished my work 
last week." But when we speak indefinitely of any thing past, as happening or 
not happening in the day, year, or age, in which wc mention it, the perfect 
must be employed; as, "I have beeii there this morning;" "I have travelled 
much this year ;" " We have escaped many dangers through life." In referring, 
liowever, to such a division of the day as is past before the time of our speaking, 
wc use the imperfect; as, " They came home early tliis morning ;" " He wa« 
with them at three o'clock this afternoon." 

The perfect t..nse, and the imperfect tense, botli denote time tliat is past ; 
but the former denotes it in such a manner, that there is still actually remaining 
some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has been 
(lone ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action past, in such a manner, 
that nothing remains of that time in which it was done. If we speak of the 
present century, we say, " Philosophers have made great discoveries in the 
present century :" but if we speak of the last century, we say, " Philosophers 
made great discoveries in the last century." " He has been much afflicted this 
year ;" "I have this week read the king's proclamation ;" " I have heard great 
news this morning." In these ins-tances, " He An* 6e«n," "I have read,'''' and 
*^ heard,'' ^ denote things that are past; but they occurred in this year, in this 
■week, and to-day ; and still there remains a part of this year, week, and day, 
whereof I speak. 

In general, the perfect tense maybe applied wherever the action is connected 
with the present time, by the actual existence, either of the author, or of the 
work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago ; but if neither 
the author nor the work now remains, it cannot be used. We may say, *' Cicero 
hat written oraXiom ;''' but we cannot say, "Cicero has written poems;" be- 
cause the orations are in being, but the poems are lost. Speaking of priests in 
general, we may say, " They have in all ages claimed great powers ;" because 
the general order of the priesthood still exists : but if we speak of the Druids, 
aa any particular order of priests, which does not now exist, we cannot use this 
tense. We cannot say, " The Druid priests have claimed grea-t powers;" but 
must say, " The Druid priests claimed great powera ;" because that order is 
now totally extinct. 

/ The Pluperfect Tense denotes past time, but as prior to some other p<Rt time 
specified ; ao) " I had finished my letter before lie arrived^" / 



The First Future Tense denotes future time ; as, " The sun will rise to- 
morrow ;" "I sliall see them again." 

The Second Future Tense denotes future time, but as prior to some other fU- 
ture time specified ; as, " The two houses vill have finished their business, when 
the king comes to prorogue them." " I shall have dined at one o'clock." k**^,.. . 

The natural divisions of time seem to be the present, past, and future; but to 
mark it more precisely, the past tense is subdivided into the imperfect, perfetf. 
and pluperfect ; and the future, into the first, and second — each having its disi- 
tinct and peculiar province ; and though they are sometimes used promiscuously, 
or substituted one for another, in cases where great accuracy is not required-, 
yet there is a real and essential difierence in their meaning. 

OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

/The conjugation of a vei'b, is its inflection, in all the moods, tenses, numbersj 
and persons. 

Regular verbs are Oiose which form the imperfect tense and perfect participle 
by adding rf or ed to the \'erb. 

Irregular verbs are those which do not form the imperfect tense and perfect 
participle by adding d or ed to the verb. 

The English language, in forming the moods and tenses, admits a number of 
auxiliaries, or helping verbs. / Those which are always auxiliaries, are may, 
can, must, might, could, tvould, should, and shall. Those v/hich are sometimes 
auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs, are do, be, have, and will. 

Conjugation of the Ferb, TO WRITE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Singular. 

1. I write. 

2. Thou writest. , ~ 

3. He, she, or it writes.* 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We write. 

2. Ye or vou write, 

3. They write. 



Singular. 

1. I wrote. 

2. Thou wrotest, 

3. He wrote. 



Singular. 

1. I have written. 

2. Thou hast written. 

3. He hast written. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We wrote. 

2. Ye or you wrote, 

3. They wrote. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We have written. 

2. Ye or you have written. 

3. They have written. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had written. 1. We had written. 

2. Thou hadst written. 2. Ye or you had written. 

3. He had written. 3. 'I'hey had written. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. ■ > Plural. 

1. I shall or will write, I. We shall or will write. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt write. ' 2. Ye or you shall or will write. 

3. He shall or will write. 3, They shall or will write. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Plural. 



Singular. 

1. I shall have written. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have written, 

3. He shall or will have written. 



1. We shall have written. 

2. Ye or you shall or will have 
written. 

3. They shall or will have written. 
Note. — Will is not used in the first person of this tense; it being incompati- 
ble with the nature of a promise. We cannot say, " I will have written a year, 
on tlie first of October next;" but, "I shall have ivrilten," is a common ex^ 
pression. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I write. 1. If we write. 

2. If thou write, 2, If ye or you write, 

3. If he write. 3. If they write. 



Singular. 

1. If I wrote. 

2. If thou wrotesti 

3. If he wrote. 



Singular. 

1. If I have written. 

2. If thou hast written. 

3. If he has written. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Plural 

1. If wc wrote. 

2. If ye or you wrote, 

3. if they wrote. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. If we have viriltcn, 

2. If ye or you have -wriltru. 

3. If they have written. 



• When a verb, of the indicntive Inood, is used in the unorccl or solemn style, tUe ending of llM 
ihird person sinjrul.Tr, present lime, is ever in M; afi, "He virittth. he tcarntlk. he Ttiaket/tt iifl 
ioveth. lie hatcth," Sec. The verb to be is an cxecption. 

11 y^fltA is used Id the sacred attil eulcmastylc, insttad of Au>; at, " IXc liaih xtt'M^n ;'' "lU hnth 
jovcdi" Itc. 



26 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



Sin^'ular. 
1. If I had written. 
S. If thou hadst written. 
■3, If he had written. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. If we had written. 

2. If ye or you had written. 

3. If they had written. 



2, 



Singular. 
I may, can, or must write. 
Thou mayst, canst, or must write. 
He may, can, or must write. 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will write. 1. If we shall or will write. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt write. 2. If ye or you shall or will write. 

3. If he shall or will write. 3. If they shall or will write. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
S'mg-ixlar. Plural. 

1. If I siiall have Avritten. 1. If we shall have written. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have written. 2. If ye or you shall or will have written. 

3. If he shall or wiU have written. 3. If they shall or will have written. 
Note. — The subjunctive mood has no variation, in tJie form of the verb, from 

t'le indicative, except in the present tense of verbs generally, and the present 
and imperfect tenses oS the verb to be. It may be of use to the learner to re- 
mark, that though we have used if only, in the conjugation of the verb in the 
subjunctive mood, yet any other conjunction, expressing doubt, may, with equal 
propriety, occasionally be used ; as, though, unless, &c. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We may, can, or must write. 

2. Yb or you may, can, or must write. 

3. They may, can, or must write. 
:'H 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Sin^lar. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should 

write. write. 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. Ye or you might, could, would, or 
shouldst write. should write. 

3, He might, coulJ, would, or should 3. They might, could, would, or should 
write. write. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have written. 1. We may, can, or must have written. 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must have 2. Ye or you may, can, or must have 

written. written. 

3. He may, can, or must have written. 3. They may, can, or must have written. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should 

have written. have written. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. Ye or you might, could, would, or 

shouldst have written. should have written. 

3. He might, could, would, or should 3. They might, could, would, or should 

have written. have written. 

Note. — It will be perceived that the auxiliaries, mat/, can, and must, are used 
to express present and perfect time ; and that might, could, would, and should, 
are used to express imperfect and pluperfect time : but, they are not unfrequent- 
ly employed indefinitely, expressing time present, past, or future. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. To Write. PERFECT TENSE. To have Written. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

% Write, write Oiou, or do thou 2. Write, write ye or you, or do ye or 
write. you write. 

PARTICIPLES. 
PRESENT. Writing. 

h PERFECT. Written. 

1 COMPOUND PERFECT. Having writtwi. 

Note. — In making three persons in tlie imperative mood, grammarians have 
committed an errcr. For these expressions, let me write, let him write, let ta 
write, let them write, are evidently addresses made to a second person. 

That the verb let, is not an auxiliary, is very plain from its conjugation. It is 
of itself a principal verb ; and, when immediately followed by another verb, it 
expresses the idea of permitting, or sufteriiig an action to be done, f The verb 
that follows let, is ever in tlie infinitive mood, the preposition to being under- 
stood; a?, '^ Let mt learn;'''' that is, " Pej-mit tne to Icarii.''''/" Let him go;'''' 
Ihst is, '^Suffer him to go.'''' We do not command, or cxhorlr ourselves. " Let 
me learn,''' ia not a coiumand given to myself, but to a second pei-son ; as, " Let 
me leitrn ;'''' that i^ '^ Suffer Ihvu mv to learn-.''' Au))-, when we addi-css com- 



mands to a third person, we ever use Uie instrumentality of a second person. 
When we say, " Let them learn,''' the meaning evidently is, " Suffer thou them 
to learn." And when we say, " Let us learn," we mean, " Suffer thou, or suf- 
fer you, us to learn." Hence it appears, that a verb, in the imperative mood, is 
always in the second person. 

For the conjugation of the verbs, To love, To have, To be, and the passice 
form of the verb, To lore, see pages 9, 11, 13, 15, 17. 

As the Indicative and Potential Moods are frequently used in asking questions, 
the following example of a verb conjugated interrogatively is subjoined, in order 
to give the learner a distinct idea of the different forma of conjugation. 

Conjugation of the verb, To BE, ttsed interrogatively ■, • 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Singular. 

1. Ami? 

2. Art thou? 

3. Is he ? 



Singular. 

1. Was I? 

2. Wast thou? 

3. Was he? 



Singular. 

1. Have I been? 

2. Hast thou been ? 

3. Has he been ? 



Singular. 
Had I been ? 
Hadst thou been ? 
Had he been ? 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. Are we? 

2. Are ye or you ? 

3. Are they ? 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. Were we? 

2. Were ye or you ? 

3. Were they ? 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Plural 

1. Have we been ? 

2. Have ye or you been 

3. Have they been ? 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. Had we been? 

2. Had ye or you been? 

3. Had they been ? 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Shall I he ? 1. Shall we be ? 

2. Shalt or wilt thou be ? 2. Shall or will ye or you be : 

3. Shall or will he be ? 3. Shall or will they be ? 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Shall I have been ? 1. Shall we have been ? 

2. Shalt or wilt thou hare been ? 2. Shall or will ye or you have been .' 

3. Shall or will he have been? 3. Shall or will they have been ,- 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Plurnl. 

1. May we be ? 

2. May ye or you be ? 

3. May they be ? 



Singular. 

1. May I be? 

2. Mayst thou be ? 

3. May he be ? 



Singular. 

1. Could 1 be ? 

2. Couldst thou be ? 

3. Could he be? 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Plural 

1. Could we be ? 

2. Could ye or you be ? 

3. Could they be? 



PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Can I have been ? 1. Can we have been ? 

2. Canst thou have been ? 2. Can ye or you have been? 

3. Can he have been ? 3. Can they have been ? 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Could I have been? 1. Could we have been f 

2. Couldst thou have been ? 2. Could ye or you have been ? 

3. Could he have been? 3. Could they have been ? 

Cmjvgatton of the AUXILMRY VERBS, in their simple form) wiik 
observations on their peculiar nature and force. 

That the auxiliary verbs, in their simple state, aiid unassisted by others, are 
of very limited extent ; and that they are chiefly useful, in the aid which they 
afford in conjugating the principal verbs ; will clearly appear to the scholar, by 
a distinct conjugation of each of them, unconnected with any oJlier. They arc 
exhibited for his inspection ; not to bu committed to memory. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



27 



Sing. 1. I may. 
Plur. 1. We may. 



MAY. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
2. Thoumayst. 
2. Ye or you may. 



3. He may. 
3. They may. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Sin^. 1. I might. 2. Thou mightst. 3. He might 

Plur. 1. We might. 2. Ye or you might 3. They might 



Stng, 1. I can. 
Plur. 1. We can. 



CAN. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
2. Thou canst 
2. Ye or you can. 



3. He can. 
3. They can. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Sing. 1. I could. 2. Thou couldst. 3. He could. 

Plur. 1. We could. .2. Ye or you could. 3. They could 



Sing. 1. I shall.* 
Plur. 1. We shall. 



SHALL. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
2. Thou shalt 3. He shall 

2. Ye or you shall. 3. They shalL 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Sing. 1. I should. 2. Thou sfaouldst 3. He should. 

Plur. 1. We shoxild. 2. Ye or you should. 3. They should. 



Sine. 1. I wilL 
Plur. 1. We will 



WILL. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
2. Thou wUt 3. He will. 

2. Ye or you will. 3. They will. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Sing. 1. I would. 2. Thou wouldst. 3. He would. 

PUir. 1. We would. 2. Ye or you would. 3. They would 

3n7ST. 

Must has no change of termination, but is joined with verbs in the present and 
perfect tenses. 

DO. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Shig. 1. I do. 2. Thou dost. 3. He doth, or does. 

Plw. 1. We do. 2. Ye or you do. 3. They do. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Sing^. 1. I did. 2. Thou didst. 3. He did. 

PUtr. 1. We did. 2. Ye or you did. 3. They did. 

P.iRTICIPLES. 
PRESEjiT. Doing. PERFECT. Done. 

BE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
2. Thou art. 3. He is. 

2. Ye or you are. 3. They are. 



Sing. i. I am. 
Pbur. 1. We are. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Sing. 1. l-wa«. 2. Thou wast. 3. He was. 

Plttr. 1. We were. 2. Ye or you were. 3. They were. 

PARTICIPLES. 
PBESEST. Being. perfect. Been. 



Sing. 1. I have. 
Pku. 1. We have. 



HAVE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
2. Thou hast. 
2. Ye or you have. 



3. He has. 
3. They have. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 
9hig. 1. I bad. 2. Thou hadst. 3. He had. 

PiMT. 1. We hod. 2. Ye or you had. 3. They liad. 

PARTICIPLES. 
PREBERT. Having. pf.rfect. Had. 

The verbs, have, be, will, and do, when thoy are unconnected with a principal 
verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs; as, " We 

* Bkall a here properly used In the preacnt teiwe, having (lie taiM onulogj to «&0bM, UM tan 
haa to ctvdd, way to mignt, and teill to woidd. 



have enough ;" " I am grateful ;" " He wills it to be so ;" " They do as they 
please." In this view, they also have their auxiliaries ; as, " I shali have enough." 
" I win, be grateful ;" " Thfty must do it," &c. 

J The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the foUovring ac- 
count of them. 

M Do and did, are used to add a particular emphasis to an affirmation, or to mark 
the time with greater positiveness ; as, "I <Zo speak truth;"f"I did respect 
him.;" "Here I am, for thou didst call me." They are alsoSised in negative 
and interrogative sentences ; as, "I do not hate him ;" " Do you hate him ?" 
To prevent the repetition of one or more verbs, in the same, or following sen- 
tence, we frequently make use of do and did ; as, " Jack learns the Enghsh 
language as fast as Harry does ;" that is, " as fast as Harry learns." " I shall 
come if I can ; but if I do not, please to excuse me ;" that is, " if I come not." 
Do, is always used in the present tense, and did, in the imperfect. 

§May and might, express the possibility or liberty of doing a thing ; can and 

could, the power ; as, " It may rain ;"|'' I may write or read ;" " He might have 

improved more than he has ;" " He can write much better than he could last 

Year." 

1 Must, is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes necessity ; as, " We 

must speak the truth, whenever we do speak, and we must not prevaricate." ' 

I WiU, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and promis- 
ing ; in the second and tliird persons, only foretels ; jp.s, " I will reward the good, 
and will punish the wicked ;" " We will reftiember benefits, and be grateful ;" 
" Thou wilt, or he will, repent of that folly ;" " You or they will have a pleasant 
walk." 

f Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels ; in the second and 
third persons, promises, commands, or threatens ; as, " I shall go abroad ;"/" We 
shall dine at home ;" " Thou shalt, or you shall, inherit the land ;" " Ye shall 
do justice, and love mercy ;" " They shall account for their misconduct." The 
following passage is not translated according to the distinct and proper meanings 
of the words shall and will j " Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me 2l 
the days of my life J/jk^ I '"'^^ dwell in the house of the Lord for ever ;" it ought 
to be, " Will followUP," and, " I shall dwell." — The foreigner, who, as it is said, 
fell into the Thames and cried out ; " I will be drowned, no body shall help me ;" 
made a sad ipisapplication of these auxiliaries. 

These observations respecting the import of the verbs will and shall, must be 
understood of explicative sentences ; for, when the sentence is interrogative, just 
the reverse, for the most part, takes place : thus, " I shall go ; you will go;" ex- 
press event only i h\it, " will you go.'" imports intention ;. and, " sAaZf I go.-'" 
refers to the will of another. But, " He shall go," and " shall he go?" both im- 
ply will ; expressing or referring to, a command. 

When tl|e verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the meaning of these auxilia- 
ries likewise undergoes some alteration ; as the learners will readily perceive by 
a few examples : "He shall proceed," " If lie shall proceed ;" " You shall con- 
sent," " If you shall consent." These au.xiliaries are sometimes interchanged, 
in the indicative and subjunctive moods, to convey the same meaning of the 
auxiliary ; as, " He will not return," " If he shall not return ;" " He shall not 
return," " If he will not return." 

Would primarily denotes inclination of will ; and should obligation : but they 
both vary their import, and are often used to express simple event. 

General remarks on the Moods and Tenses, and the inflection of Verbs. 
The form of the verb to be, in the indicative mood, present tense, as exhibited 
on page 9, is now generally used by good writers. But the following form is 
the most ancient, and is found in the translation of the Bible, and other good 
English authorities, and is still sometimes used in popular practice. 

PRESENT, TENSE. 
Sing. 1. I be. 2. Thou beest. 3. He is. 

Plur. 1. We be. 2. Ye or you be. 3. They be. 

Thou beest is now obsolete, and you be is used instead. 

The form of the present tense of the subjunctive mood, is frequently used to 
express future time, the auxiliary being suppressed; thus, instead of saying, "if 
he should be, if he should go, if he should learn ;" we frequently say, " if he be, 
if he go, if he learn." Should, is probably more used to form the future tense 
of the subjunctive mood, than shall, or will. 

The potential mood becomes subjunctive, by means of the conjunctions tf, 
though, unless, &c. prefixed to its tenses, without any variations from the poten- 
tial inflections ; as, " If I could deceive him, I should abhor it." 

It should be noticed, that tlie sign of the subjimctive mood, is not always ex- 
pressed : supposition or hypothesis may be well expressed without the conjunc- 
tions, if, though, unless, &c. as, " Jf^ere it possible," for, " if it were possible." 

In tlie subjunctive mood, there is a peculiarity in the tenses which should be 
noticed. When I say, " if it ruins," it is understood that I am uncertain of the 
fact, at the time of wpeaking. But when I say, " if it rained, we should be 
obliged to seek shelter," it is noi understood that I am uncertain of the fact ; 
on the contrary, it is understood that I am certain, it does not rain at the time 
of speaking. Or if I say, " if it did not rain, I would take a walk." I convey 
the. idea that it does rain at the moment of speaking. This form of our tenses in 
the subjunctive mood, has never been the subject of much notice, nor ever re- 
ceived its due explanation and arrangement. For this hypothetical verb is 
actually a present tense, or at least indefinite — it certainly does not belong to 
past time. It is further to be remarked, that a negative sentence always implies 
en affirmative — " if it did not rain," implies that it does rain. On the contrary, 
an affirmative sentence implies a negative — " if it did rain," iupliea that it 
docs not. ' 

In the past time, a similar distinction exists ; for " if it rained yesterday/' de 
notes uncertainty in the speaker's mind — but " if it had not rained yesterday," 
impUes a certainty, that it did rain. 



jg^ 



^- -'-"■' ■■-■'^ 



28 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



In the Potential mood, some grammarians confound the present with the im- 
perfect tense ; and the perfect with the pluperfect. But that they are really 
distinct, and have an appropriate reference to time, correspondent to the defini- 
tions of those tenses, will appear from a few examples: " I wished him to stay, 
but he would not ;" " I coidd not accomplish the business in time ;" " It was my 
direction that he should submit ;" " He was ill, but I thought he might live ;" 
" I may have misunderstood him ," " He cannot have deceived me ;" " He might 
have finished the work sooner, but he could not have done it better." It must, 
however, be admitted, that, on some occasions, the auxiliaries might, could, ■mould, 
and should, refer also to present and to future time. 

^ In poetry and law style, the verb let, in the imperative mood, is frequently 
omitted ; as, _" Perish the lore that deadens young desire ;" that is, " let tlie lore 
perish," &c. " Be ignorance thy choice, where knowledge leads to wo ;" that 
is, "let ignorance be thy choice," &c. "Be it enacted;" that is," let it be 
enacted." 

/ Those tenses are called simple tenses, which are formed of the principal verb ; 
as, " I learn, I learned." The compoimd tenses are such as cannot be formed 
without an auxiliary verb ; as, " I Itave learned, I had learned, I shall or will 
learn, I may learn, I may be learned, I may have beenAlearned," &c. These com- 
pounds, are, however, to be considered as only different forms of the same verbs. 

An active or a neuter verb may be conjugated differently from the usual man- 
ner, by adding its present participle to the auxiliary verb to be, through all its 
moods and tenses ; as, instead of " I teach, thou teachest, he teaches," &c. we 
may say, " I am teaching, thou art teaching, he is teaching." This mode of con- 
jugation has, on particular occasions, a peculiar propriety ; and contributes to 
the harmony and precision of language. Hence some grammarians divide each 
tense into two forms, for the purpose of distinguishing the definite or precise time 
from the indefinite. 

The indefiizite tense represents general truths, and customary actions, without 
reference to a specific time ; as, " God is infinitely great and just / man is im- 
perfect and dependant; plants 5prm^ from the earth ; birds ^j/ ; fishes sioim ; 
Scipio was as virtuous as brave ; I have accomplished m^design ; Edgar will ob- 
tain a commission in the navy." UjL 
H Tlie definite tense marks the time with precision ; asPW am writing ; he is 
'reading ;'' " I loas standing at the door when the procession passed ;" "I had been 
reading your letter when the messenger arrived ;" " He will be preparing for a 
visit, at the time you arrive ;" " We shall have been making preparations a 
week before our friends arrive." 

When a helping verb is joined to a principal verb, the latter is never varied ; 
as, " I can learn, thou canst learn, he can learn." When there are two or more 
auxiliaries joined to a principal verb, the first of them only is varied according 
to person and numbeT ; as, " I may have written, thou mayst have written ; I 
have been loted, thou hast been loved; I shall or will be loved, thov^halt or loilt 
be loved." 

The neuter verb is conjugated like the active ; but, as it partakes somewhat 
of the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, of the passive form, 
retaining still the neuter signification ; as, " I am arrived ;" " I was gone ;" " I 
am grown." The auxiUary verb, am, was, in this case, precisely defmes the time 
of the action or event, but does not change the nature of it ; the passive form 
not expressing a passion, or the receiving of an action, but only a state or con- 
dition of being. AU verbs of the passive form, that will not admit the preposi- 
tion by or with, and an agent after them, are neuter verbs. 

§ The tense of passive verbs, and of verbs of the definite kind, is ascertained, 
%nly, by their auxiliaries ; as, " I am loved, I was loved, I shall be loved;*^" I am, 
writing, I was writing, I have been writing." ' 



A CATALOGUE OF IRKEGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 

Abide, 

Am, 

Arise, 

Awake, 

Bear, to bring forth, 

Bear, to carry, 

Beat, 

Begin, 

Bend, 

Bereave, 

Beseech, 

Bid, 

Bind, 

Bite, 

Bleed, 

Blow, 

Break, 

Breed, 

Bring, 

Build, 

Burst, 

Buy, 

Cast, 

Catch, 

Chide, 

Choose, 

Cleave, to stick or adh 

Cleave, to split, 

Cling, 

Clothe, 

Come, 



Imperfect. 
abode, 
was, 
arose, 
awoke, r. 
bore, or bare, 
bore, 
beat, 
began, 
bent, 
bereft, r. 
besought, 
bid, or bade, 
bound, 
bit, 
bled, 
blew, R. 
broke 
hied, 
brought, 
built, 
burst, 
bought, 
cast, 

caught, R. 
chid, 
chose, 
ere, regclar. 
clove, or cleft, 
clung, 
clothed, 
came, 



Perfect Participle. 

abode. 

been. 

arisen. 

awaked. 

born, or borne. 

borne. 

beaten, or beat. 

begun. 

bent. 

bereft, r. 

besought. 

bidden, or bid. 

bound. 

bitten, or bit. 

bled. 

blown. R 

broken. 

bred, 

brought. 

built. 

burst. 

bouglit, 

cast. 

caught. R. 

chidden, or chid. 

chosen. 

cleft, or cloven, 
clung, 
clad. R. 
come. 



Present 

Cost, 

Crow, 

Creep, 

Cut, 

Dare, to venture, 

Dare, to challenge, r. . 

Deal, 

Dig, 

Do, 

Draw, 

Drive, 

Drink, 

DweU, 

Eat, 

FaU, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 

Flee, 

Fly, 

Forget, 

Forsake, 

Freeze, 

Get, 

Gild, 

Gird, 

Give, 

Go, 

Grave, 

Grind, 

Grow, 

Have, 

Hang, 

Hear, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Knit, 

Know, 

Lade, 

Lead, 

Leave, 

Lend, 

Let, 

Lie, to Ue dawn, 

Load, 

Lose, 

Make, 

Meet, 

Mow, 

Pay, 

Put, 

Read, 

Rend, 

Rid, 

Ride, 

Ring, 

Rise, 

Rive, 

Run, 

Saw, 

Say, 

See, 

Seek, 

SeU, 

Send, 

Set, 

Shake, 

Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Show, or shew. 

Shoe, 

Shoot, 

Shrink, 

Shred, 

Shut, 

Sing, 

* Gotten is nearly obsolete. 
f Riddin is nearly obsolete. 



Imperfect. 

cost, 

crew, R. 

crept, 

cut, 

durst, 

dealt, R. 

dug, R. 

did, 

drew, 

drove, 

drank, 

dwelt, R. 

eat, or ate, 

fell, 

fed, 

felt, 

fought, 

found, 

fled, 

flung, 

flew, 

forgot, 

forsook, 

froze, 

got) 

gUt, R. 

girt, R. 

gave, 

went, 

graved, 

ground, 

grew, 

had, 

hung, R. 

heard, 

hewed, 

hid, 

hit, 

held, - . 

hurt, 

kept, 

knit, R. 

knew, 

laded, 

laid, 

led, 

left, 

lent, 

let, 

lay, 

loaded, 

lost, 

made, 

met, 

mowed, 

paid, 

put, 

read, 

rent, 

rid, 

rode, 

rung, or rang, 

rose, 

rived, 

ran, 

sawed, 

said, 

saw, 

sought, 

sold, 

sent, 

set, 

shook, 

shaped, 

shaved, 

sheared, 

shed, 

shone, r. 

showed, or shewed, 

shod, 

shot, 

shrunk, 

shred, 

shut, 

sung, or sang. 



Perfect Participle. 

cost. 

crowed. 

crept. 

cut. 

dared. 

dealt. R. 

dug. R. 

done. 

drawn. 

driven. 

drunk. 

dwelt. R. 

eaten. 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 

flung. 

flown. 

forgotten, or forgot. 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

got.*- 

gUt. B. 

girt. B. 

given. 

gone. 

graven. r 

ground. 

grown. 

had. 

hung. R. 

heard. 

hewn. R. 

hidden, or hid. 

hit. 

held. 

hurt. 

kept. 

knit. R. 

known. 

laden. 

laid. 

led. 

left. 

lent. 

let. 

lain. 

laden, r. 

lost. 

made. 

met. 

mown. r. 

paid. 

put. 

read. 

rent. 

rid. 

rode, or ridden.t 

rung. 

risen. 

riven. 

run. 

sawn. K. 

said. 

seen. 

sought. 

sold. 

sent. 

set. 

shaken. 

shaped, or shapen. 

shaven, k. 

shorn. 

shed. 

shone, r. 

shown, or shewn. 

shod. 

shot. 

shrunk. 

shred. 

shut. 

sung. 



Its compoimd /or^ottM is stiU in good use. 



k 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



29 



Present. 

Sink, 

Sit, 

Slay, 

Sleep, 

Slide, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smite, 

Sow, 

Speak, 

Speed, 

Spend, 

Spill, 

Spin, 

Spit, 

Split, 

Spread, 

Spring, 

Stand, 

Steal, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stink, 

Stride, 

Strike, 

String, 

Strive, 

Strow, or strew. 

Swear, 

Sweat, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Swing, 

Take, 

Teach, 

Tear, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Thrust, 

Tread, 

Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Weep, 

Win, 

Wind, 

Work, 

Wring, 

Write, 

Those verbs which are conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly, are mark- 
ed with an r. Those verbs and participles which are the first mentioned in the 
list seem to be the most eligible. 

When the form of tlie imperfect tense and perfect participle are different, the 
imperfect tense must not be comiected with an auxiliary: as, " I have written;" 
not, " I have wrote." " The house was shaken;" not, " The house was shook." 
" He would not have gone, if he had known it ;" not, " He would not have went, 
if he had known it." 

It will be seen by the preceding list, that irregular verb#are of various sorts. 

1. Such as have the present and imperfect tenses, and perfect participle, the 
same ; as, Cost, cost, cost. Put, put, put. 

2. Such as have the imperfect tense and perfect participle the same, but dif- 
ferent from the present ; as, Abide, abode, abode. Sell, sold, sold. 

3. Such as have the present and imperfect tenses, and perfect participle, all 
different ; as. Arise, arose, arisen. Blow, blew, blown. 

Those verbs which are irregular only in familiar writing and discourse, and 
which are improperly terminated by t instead of ed, are not inserted. Of this 
class are such as learnt, spelt, latcht, &c. the use of which termination should be 
carefully avoided in every sort of composition, and even in pronunciation. 
These however must be carefully distinguished from those necessary and allow- 
able contractions, which are the only established forms of expressions ; such as 
dwelt, lost, felt, &.C. Words that are obsolete have also been omitted ; such as 
holpen, holden, gat, swung, &c. 

* Defective verbs are those which are used only in some of the moods and 
tenses. / 

The principal of the defective verbs are the following. 

Present. Impi'rfect. Perfect Participle. 

Can, could, 

May, might, 

Shall, should, ■ 

WiU, would, 

Must, must, 

Ought, ought, 

quoth. 



Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


sunk, or sank, 


sunk. 


sat, or sate, 


sat. 


slew, 


slain. 


slept. 


slept. 


slid. 


slidden. 


slung, 
slunk, 


slung, 
slunk. 


slit, K. 


slit. R. 


smote. 


smitten. 


sowed, 


sown. R. 


spoke, or spake, 


spoken. 


sped. 


sped. , 


spent. 


spent. 


spilt, R. 


spilt. R. 


spun. 


spim, 


spit, or spat. 


spit, or spitten.* 


split. 


split. 


spread. 


spread. 


sprung, or sprang, 


sprung. 


stood. 


stood. 


stole. 


stolen. 


stuck. 


stuck. 


stung, 
stunk. 


stung, 
stunk. , 


strode, or strid. 


stridden. 


struck. 


struck, or stricken. 


strung. 


strung. 


strove. 


striven. 


strowed, or strewed. 


strown,strowed,or strewed 


swore, or sware, 


sworn. 


swet, R. 


swet. R. 


swelled. 


swollen. R, 


swum, or swam, 


swum. 


swung. 


swung. 


took. 


taken. 


taught. 


taught. 


tore, 


torn. 


told. 


told. 


thought. 


thought. 


throve, r 


thriven. 


threw. 


thrown. 


thrust. 


thrust. 


trod. 


trodden. 


waxed, 


waxen, r. 


wore. 


worn. 


wove, 


woven. 


wept. 


wept. 


won. 


won. 


wound. 


wound. 


worked, or wrought, 


worked, or wrought. 


vsTung, 


wrung. . 


wrote, 


written. 



Quoth, meaning to say, is obsolete in prose, but in poetry and burlesque it is 
sometimes used in the third person singular ; as, quoth he. 

Wot, meaning to know, is obsolete in modern style, but frequently used in 
scripture ; as, " I wot not who hath done this thing ;'' " My master wotteth not 
what is with me in the house." It is used in the present and past tenses only. 

Wist, meaning to think or imagine, is seldom met with, but in the early Eng- 
lish writings, and in the English bible ; as, " Wist ye not that I must be about 
my Father's business." 

In most languages there are some verbs which are defective with respect to 
persons. They are used only in the third person, because they refer to a sub- 
ject peculiarly appropriate to that person; as, it rains, it snows, it hails, it 
lightens, &c. 

The whole number of verbs in the English language, regular and irregular, 
simple and compounded, taken together, is about 4300. The number of irregu- 
lar verbs, the defective included, is about 177. I{ote. — The whole number of 
words in the English language, is about thirty-five thousand. 

The verb is a primary part of speech, and next to the noun is of the most im- 
portance. Of the whole class of words it is by far the most complex. 

Verbs are so called from the Latin word verbum, which signifies a word; and 
this name is given them by way of eminence. 



r A 



PARTICIPLES. 



SpitUn is nearlj obsolete. 



A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the 
nature of the verb, adjective, and noun. 

Participles are of two kinds, present and perfect. 

The present participle denotes present time, and generally ends in mg ; as, 
loving. 

The perfect participle denotes past time, and in regular verbs, corresponds ex- 
actly with the imperfect tense ; as, loved. 

The union of two or more participles, is, sometimes, called a compound parti- 
ciple ; as, having lovfd. 

Participles, like verbs, have an active, passive, and neuter signification. 

Examples of the present participles. — " Knowing him to be my superior, I 
cheerfully submitted ;"/" A poet, speaking of the universal deluge, says," &c. 
" I saw him labouring in the field ;" " Having a fair wind, we soon lost sight of 
land ;" " The sun approaching melts the snow;" " Jacob worshipped his Cfea- 
tor, leaning on his staff;" " Being in haste, I must bid you adieu;" " Charles, 
being loved by his friend, is perfectly happy." 

Examples of the perfect participles. — " Words fitly spoken, are like apples of 
gold in pictures of silver ;" " By ^reading books written by the best authors, his 
mind became highly improved ;",?" Having finished his work, he submitted it ;" 
" George having written the lettbr, sealed and despatched it." 

Participles, as observed, are derivatives from verbs, formed by particular ter- 
minations, consequently, most nearly related to verbs ; as, from the verb love, 
are derived loving, loved. 

Between the participle and the verb there is such a nice gradation, that 
young learners often find it difficult to distinguish the difference. An illustra- 
tion, on the subject, maybe of service to the learner, lit appears that the 
same word is sometimes a participle, and sometimes a verb. Examples: 
'_' John loved his book." Here loved is a verb ; but in the following sentence it 
is a participle. " John, loved by all who knew him, was greatly lamented.". 
" The Britons daily harassed the enemy ;" Verb.—" The Britons, daily harassed 
by the Picts, were obliged to call in the Saxons ;" Participle. " I admired and 
applauded him ;" Verb. — " Admired and applauded, he became vain ;" Participle 
" He is heated with liquor ;» Verb.—'' The man, heated with liquor, could not 
brook the offence ;" Participle. " He charged the enemy ;" Verb. — " Charged 
with rich gifts from the king, he presents himself before the prophet," &c. Par- 
ticiple. " They are joined together ;" Verb.—" Virtue joiiied to knowledge and 
wealth, confers great honours and respectability ;" Participle. " He is raised 
to greatness ;" Verb. — " Raised to greatness, he employed his power," &c. Pnr- 
ticipte. " I have erected a house ;" Verb. — " Yon house, erected on the rising 
ground, drew me from my road ;" Participle. " He lodged at the inn ;" Verb. 
— " I found him lodged in prison ;" Participle. 

In forming the moods and tenses, participles are often associated with verbs ; 
in this case, they seem to lose their cliaracter as participles, and become verbs. 
Hence, it may be remarked, that when the participle performs the office of a 
verb through all the moods and tenses, implies the idea of time, and governs the 
objective case of nouns and pronouns, in the same manner as verbs do, it eannot 
properly be called a distinct part of speech ; for it is manifest, in such cases, that 
it is a species or form of the verb, and tiierefore may be called a verb ; as in the 
following examples. " I am writing, or I had written; He is teaching; He has 
snoken; We have been loved; They might have been taught." 
£ Note. — A word cannot be a perfect participle, unless it will admit of /uj»e 
Mjefore it, and make sense, n-— ~r- 

The participle often becomes an adjective ; as, " a loving friend ; a moving 
spectacle ; a heated imagination ; lasting friendship." In such cases it admits 
of comparison by more and most, less and least ; as, " A more admired artist ; a 
most respected magistrate." It sometimes becomes a noun ; as, " The burning 
of London was a distressing event." " By trusting to Iiis hcmour I lost my money." 
In this usage it takes the plural form; as, " The oi>cr/oM)('n^>-s of the Nile." "Ho 
seeth all his goings." 

Sometimes the plural is used when an adverb is attached to tho participle ; as, 
" Tho goings out — tho comings in." But tijis uso of tho participle is not deemed 
elegant, nor is it common in colloquial discourse. 
f Note. — Many words, such as untouched, unvexijd, &c. have tho appearance 
of being participles, which are, in fact, adjectives f as, " Can we, untouched by 
gratitude, view the profusion of good which tho Annighty hand bestows around 



30 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



MgMM 



US?" These words will not admit have before them, and make sense; we can- 
not say, " I have untouched him ;" " I Jiave unvexed him." 

Participles are so called from the Latin word participo, which signifies, to 
paftake ; and this name is given them because they partake of the nature of 
verbs, no^ns, and adjectives. 

OF ADVERBS. 

a , , , 

jf An Adverb is a word used to qualify the sense of verbs, participles, 
adjectives, and other adverbs; as, "He fought bravely;" "We 
heard them secretly contriving evil ;" " Extremely fine vi^eather ;" 
" He speaks very gracefully." 

Some adverbs are compared thus ; soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest. 
Those ending in ly, are compared by Tnore and ?no«i ; as, wisely, more wisely, 
most wisely. 

Adverbs form a very numerous class of words in every language ; as they 
serve to modify, or to denote some circumstance of an action, or of a quality, 
relatix-e to its time, place, order, degree, and the other properties of it, which 
we have occasion to signify. They seem originally to have been contrived to 
express compendiously in one word, what must otherwise have required two or 
more; as, "He acted wisely," for, he acted with wisdom; "prudently," for, 
with prudence ; " He did it here," for, he did it in this place ; " exceedingly," 
for, to a great degree ; " often and seldom," for, many and foi few times; " very," 
for, in an eminent degree, &c. Hence adverbs may be considered as of less ne- 
cessity than any other class of words. 

Adverbs may be reduced to certain classes, the chief of which are those of 
Number, Order, Place, Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirma- 
tion, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison. •;-- 

A list oftlie principal Adverbs^ 

1. Of numier. Once, twice, thrice, &c. * 

2. Of order. First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally, «&c. 

3. Of place. Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, no- 
where, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, back- 
ward, whence, hence, thence, whithersoever, &c. 

4. Of time. 

Of time present. Now, to-day, &c. 

Of time past. Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long 
since, long ago, &c. 

Of time to come. To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, 
by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straightways, &c. 

Of time indefinite. Oft, often, oft times, oftentimes, sometimes, soon, seldom, 
daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c. 

5. Of quantity. Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, 
abundantly, &c. 

6. Of manner or quality. Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly, 
&c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally 
formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective or participle, or changing le 
into ly ; as, " Bad, badl^ ; cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ably ; admirable, admi- 
rably." 

T. Of doubt. Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance. 

8. Of affirmation. VerUy, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, 
surely, indeed, really, &c. 

9. Of negation. Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise, &c. 

10. Of Interrogation. How, why, wherefore, whether, &c. 

11. Of comparison. More, most,. better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very, 
almost, little, alike, &c. 

Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many which are formed by 
a combination of several of the prepositions with the adverbs of place, here, 
there, and where ; as, " Hereof, thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto ; 
hereby, thereby, whereby ; herewith, therewith, wherewith 5 herein, therein, 
wherein ; therefore, (i. e. there-for,) wherefore, (i. e. where-for,) hereupon or 
hereon, thereupon or thereon, whereupon or whereon, &c. Except therefore, 
these are seldom used. » 

Some adverbs are simple or single, others compound; the former consists of 
but one word ; as, happily, bravely, «&c. The latter consists of two or more 
words ; as, atpreseiU, now a days, at length, at once, at first, by and by, &c. 
I A preposition becomes an adverb when it has no object expressed or under- 
stood ; or, when joined with a verb, and necessary to complete the sense of the 
verb ; as, " The business was attended to ;"P To cast up ;" " To give over ;" 
" He rides about/' " He was near falling;" " But do not after lay the blame 
on me ;" " He died long before;" " He dwells above;" " They had their reward 
soon after." 

* The words when and where, and all others of the same nature, such as, whence, 
whither, whenever, wherever, die. may be properly called adverbial conjunctions, 
because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjujictions ;,^of ad- 
verbs, as they denote the attributes either of time or of place; of conjuhctions, 
as they conjoin sentences. 

, It may be particularly observed with respect to the word therefore, that it is 
an adverb, when, without joining sentences, it only gives the sense of, for that 
reason. When it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a conjunction ; as, 
" He ia good, therefore,he is htippy.'' The same observation may bo extended 
to the words consequently, accordingly, and the like. When these are subjoined 
to_ and, or joined to if, since, &c. they are adverbs, the connexion being made 
without their help : when they appear single, and unsupported by any other 
connective, they may be called conjunctions. 

The inquisitive scholar may naturally ask, what necessity there is for adverbs 



of time, when verbs are provided with tenses to show that circumstance. Th« 
answer is, though tenses may be sufficient to denote the greater distinctions of 
time, yet, to denote them all by the tenses would be a perplexity without end. 
What a variety of forms must be given to the verb, to denote yesterday, to-day, 
to-morrow, formerly, lately, just now, now, immediatehj, presently, soon, here- 
after, &c. It was this consideration that made the adverbs of time necessary, 
over and B.bove the tenses. 

Adverbs are^o called from the two Latin words, ad and verbum, which signiQr 
to a verb ; and this name is given them because they are, generally, added to 
verbs. 

OF PREPOSITIOJ^S, 

A Preposition is a word which serves to connect words, and show 
the relation between them ; as, " He went from London to York ;" 
" She is above disguise;" " They are instructed by him." -^ 

All words, which express the relative situation of two things, are prepositions; 
as, in, when separately considered, implies, that one thing is within another. On 
implies, that one thing is under another. The preposition shows also the relative 
situation of moving objects ; as, " William travelled by Boston through New- York 
towards Washington." Here by, through, and towards, show the relative situation 
of their respective objects, Boston, JVew-York, and Washington, to William. 

Prepositions are not a very numerous class of words, but are of great impor- 
tance in language. 



Of 
to 

for 

with 



A list of the principal Preposiiiotis. 

into above 

within below at 

without between up 

over beneath down 

under from before 

t/irough beyond behind 



on or upon 
among 
jCfter i 
about 
against <^ 



Verbs nre ofte;i compounded of a verb and a preposition ; as, to invest, to over- 
look : and this composition sometimes gives a new sense to the verb ; as, to undtr- 
stand, to withdraw, to forgive. But in English, the preposition is more frequently 
placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an adverb ; in which situation 
it is not less apt to affect the sense of it, and to give it a new meaning, and may 
still be considered as belonging to the verb, and as a part of it. As, lo cast, is to 
throw ; but tn cast up, or to compute, an account, is quite a different thing ; thus, 
to fall on, to bear out, to give over, &c. So that the meaning of the verb, and 
the propriety of the phrase, depend on the preposition subjoined. 

In the composition of many words, there are certain syllables employed, which 
grammarians have called inseparable prepositions ; as, be, con, mis, &c.in bedeck, 
conjoin, mistake : but as they are not words of any kind, they cannot properly 
be called a species of preposition. 

One great use of prepositions, in English, is, to express tliose relations, which, 
in some languages, are chiefly marked by cases, or the different endin^rs of noims. 
The necessity and use of them will appear from the following examples. If we 
say, '• He writes a pen ;" " they ran the river ;" " the tower fell the Greeks ;" 
" Lambeth is Westminster-abbey ;" there is observable, in each of these expres- 
sions, either a total want of connexion, or such a connexion as produces false- 
hood or nonsense ; and it is evident, that, before they can be turned into sense, 
the vacancy must be filled up by some connecting word : as thus, •' He writes 
with a pen ;" " they ran towards the river ;" " the tower fell upon the Greeks ;** 
" Lambeth is over against Westminster-abbey." We see by these instances, 
how prepositions may be necessary to connect those words, which, in their sig- 
nification, are not naturally connected. 

Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, seem to h.ave denoted 
relations of place ; but they are now used figuratively to express other relations. 
For example, as they who are above have in several respects tlie advantage of 
such as are below, prepositions expressing high and low places are used for supe- 
riority and inferiority in general ; as, " lie is above disguise ;" " We serve under 
a good master ;" " He rules over a willing people ;" "We should do nothing 6«- 
neath our character." 

The importance of the prepositions will be ftirther perceived by the explana- 
tion of a few of them. 

Of denotes possession or belonging, an effect or consequence, and other rela- 
tions connected with these ; as, " The house of my friend ;" that is, " the house 
belonging to my friend ;" " He died of a. fever ;" that is, " in consequence of a 
fever." 

To or unto is opposed to from; as, " He rode fVom Salisbury to Winchester." 

For indicates the cause or motive of any action or circumstance, &c. ; as, " He 
loves her /or (that is, on account of) her amiable qualities." 

By is generally used with reference to the cause, agent, means, «S:c. ; as, "He 
was killed by a fall ;" that is, " a fall was the cause of his being killed ;" " This 
house was built by him ;" that is, " he was the builder of it." 

With denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, &c. ; as. " We will go witA 
you ;" " They are on good terms with each other." — With also alludes to the in- 
strument or means ; as, " He was cut with a knifo." 

In relates to time, place, the state or manner of being or actins, &c. ; as, " He 
was born in (that is, during) the year 1720;'' "Ho dwells in tne city;" " She 
lives in affluence." 

Into is used after verbs that imply motion of any kind ; as, " He retired into 
the country ;" " Copper is converted into brass." 

Within relates to something comprehended in any place or time ; as, " Tboy 
are within the house ;" " He oegan and finished his work within the limited 
.time." 

The signification of without Is opposite to that of within; as, " She standa 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



xoitfumt the gate." But it is more ftequently opposed to with; as, " You may 
go xcitlieut me." 

The import and force of the remaining prepositions will be readily understood, 
without a particular detail of them. We shall, therefore, conclude this head 
with observing, that there is a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the use of 
the prepositions hy and with ; which is observable in sentences Uke the follow- 
ing : " He walks with a staff ii/ moonlight ;" " He was taken hy stratagem, and 
kiDed with a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and say, "he 
walks hj a staff with moonlight ;" " he was taken with stratagem, and killed hy 
a sword ;" and it wiU appear that they differ in signification more than one, at 
first view, would be apt to imagine. 

Some of the prepositions have the appearance and effect of conjunctions ; as, 
" .4/ifcr their prisons were thrown open," &c. "Before I die 5" "They made 
haste to be prepared against their friends arrived ;" but if the noun time, which 
is imderstood, to be added, they will lose their conjunctive form ; as, " After [the 
time when] their prisons," &c. 

/ The article a before participles in the phrases a coming, a going, a walking, 
a hunting, «&lc. and before nouns ; as, a bed, a broad, a shore, a foot, &c. is 

fonerally supposed to be a contraction of the preposition on or at; as, " I am at 
unting ;" /' He is on board." /Sometimes the article and noun are blended in 
one term, and become an adverb ; as, ahed, abroad, ashore, aside, asleep, &c. 

The letter o before nouns in the phrases, " one o'clock, ten o'clock," &c. is a 
contraction of the preposition ora or of; the same as to say, " one of the clock ;" 
or, " one on the clock." 

When two prepositions are placed together, the first is used adverbially ; as, 
" He came down from the mountain ;'' here down is used as an adverb. 

Prepositions are so called from the two Latin words pra and pono, which sig- 
nify hefore and place ; and this name is given them because they are, in most 
cases, placed before nouns and pronouns. 



1f| 



OF COJ^JUJS'CTIOJS'S. 



' A Conjunction is a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences ; 
joining two or more simple sentences into one compound one. It 
sometimes connects only words. 

Conjunctions are principally divided into two sorts, the Copulative, and the 
Disjunctive. 

The copulative conjunction connects words and sentences together, and con- 
tinues the sense ; as, " He and his brother reside in London ;" " Two, and 
three, and four, make nine." 

The disjunctive conjunction joins together words and sentences, but e-xpresses 
opposition in the sense ; as, " The hand of the diligent shall bear rule ; but the 
slothful shall be under tribute." 

Conjunctions are not numerous, but, like prepositions, are very essential to 
discourse. 

ji A list of the principal Conjunctions, 

Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore. 

Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, 
notwithstanding. **'^ 

/ Several words, belonging to other parts of speech, are occasionally used 
Bfl conjunctions. 

" He provided money for his journey ;" " I will do it, provided you lend me 
some help." In the first sentence, provided is a verb ; and in the second, a 
conjunction. ■•*»•'- 

" Except him ;" " Paul said, except these abide in the ship." In the fiist sen- 
tence, except is a verb in the imperative mood ; and in the second, a conjunc- 
tion. Excepting is also used as a participle and conjunction. 

" Both horses were stolen ;" " He is both virtuous and brave." In the first 
sentence, both is an adjective; and in the second, a conjunction. 

" Christ he.in^ the cnief corner stone ;" " Being this reception of the gospel 
was anciently foretold." In the first sentence, being is a participle ; and m the 
Mocond, a conjunction. 

" You may take either of the books ;" " He will either sail for Canton or Ja- 
pan." In the first sentence, either is a pronominal adjective ; and in the second, 
a conjunction, correBj)onding with or. 

" You shall take neither of the books ;" • He will neither study nor work." 
In tlie first sentence, neither is a pronominal adjective j and in the second, a con- 
junction corresponding with Jtor. 

" He arrived then, and not before ;" •< I rest then upon this argument." In 
tlie first sentence, then is an adverb ; and in the second, a conjunction. 

" He contended for victory ;" " I submitted, for it was vain to resist." In 
tho first sentence, fur is a preposition ; and in the second, a conji'.iiction. 

" Our friendship commenced long.vmce;" "I have not seen him since that 
time ;" " Since we must i)art, let us do it peaceably." In the first sentence, 
siTue is an adverb ; in the second, a preposition ; and m the third, a conjunction. 
^ That, when it can be changed into which, who, or whom, is ever a relative 
pronoun; as, " The book that he gave me;" or, "The book which he gave 
me." When it belongs to a noun, either expressed or understood, it is a pro- 
nominal adjective ; as, " That man ;" " Whose pen is that 9" that is, " whose 
pea iB tliMt pen?" JVtat, on all other occasions, is a conjunction. •^*' 

Conjunctions and prepositions form that class of words called connectives, v/ith- 
out which tliore could be no language ; serving to e.\pross the relations which 
things bear one to another, their mutual influence, dnpcndence, and coherence ; 
thereby joining words together into intelligible and significant propositions. 

Relative pronouns as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences ; as, 
"Blessed is the man who feaj-oth the Lord, and keepeth his commandments." 
I A relative pronoun possesses the force both of a pronoun and a cormective. 



Nay, the union by relatives is rather closer, than that by mere conjunctions. 
The latter may form two or more sentences into one ; but by the former, several 
sentences may incorporate in one and the same clause of a sentence. Thus, 
" Thou seest a man, and he is cabled Peter," is a sentence consisting of two dis- 
tinct clauses, united by the copulative and : but, " The man wluom thou seest is 
called Peter," is a sentence of one clause, and not less comprehensive than tho ; 
other. 

Conjunctions very oflen unite sentences, when they appear to unite only 
words ; as in the. following instances ; " Duty aiid interest forbid vicious indul- 
gencies ;" " Wisdom or foily governs us." Eacli of these forms of expression 
contains two sentences, uamely ; " Duty forbids vicious indulgencies ; interest 
forbids vicious indulgencies ;" " Wisdom governs us, or folly governs us." 

Though the conjunction is commonly used to connect sentences together, yet, 
on some occasions, it merely connects words, not sentences ; as, " The king and 
queen are an amiable pair ;" where the affirmation cannot refer to each ; it be- 
ing absurd to say, that the king or the queen only is an amiable pair. So in the 
instances, " two and two are four ;" " the fifth and sixth volumes will complete 
the set of books." Prepositions also, asbefoio observed, connects words ; but 
they do it to show the relation which the connected words have to each other : 
conjunctions, when they unite words only, are designed to show the relations, 
which those words, so united, have to other parts of tho sentence. 

As there are mnny conjunctions and connective phrases appropriated to the 
coupling of sentences, that are never employed in joining the members of a sen- 
tence ; so tliere are several conjunctions appropriated to the latter use, which 
are never employed in tlie former ; and soirio that are equally adapted to both 
those purposes; as, again, further, besides. &c. of the first kind; than, less, un- 
less, that, so, that, &c. of the second ; and but, and, for, therefore, &c. of the last. 
Conjunctions not only connect sentences in construction, but they also begin 
sentences after a full period, manifesting some relations between sentences in the 
general tenor of discourse. The distinguishing use of the conjunction is to save 
the repetition of words ; for this sentence — " John, Thomas, and Peter reside at 
York," contains three simple sentences ; " John resides at York — Thomas re- 
sides at York — Peter resides at York ;" which are all combined in one, with a 
single verb, by means of the conjunction and. Hence it appears that, conjunc- 
tions often unite sentences, when they appear to unite words only. 

Conjunctions are so called from the two Latin words con and jungo, which 
signify to join with ; and this name is given them because they conjoin or join 
together, words or parts of sentences. 

OF IJ^TERJECTIOJ^S. 

f An Interjection is a word used to express passion or emotion ; 
usually that, which is violent or sudden; as, " Oh! 1 have alienated 
my friend ; alas! I fear for life :" " O virtue ! how amiable art thou." 

The English interjections, as well as those of other languages, are comprised 
within a small compass. They are of different sorts, according to the different 
passions which they serve to express. Those which intimate earnestness or grief, 
are, O ! oh ! ah ! alas ! Such as are expressive of contempt, are, pish ! tush .' 
of wonder, heigh! really.' strange! of calling, here! ho! soAo .' ol aversion or 
diagviBt, foh ! Jie ! away! of a call of the attention, lo! behold! hark! of re- 
questing silence, hush ! hist ! of salutation, welcome ! hail ! all hail ! Besides 
these, many others, frequent in the mouths of the multitude, might be enume- 
rated ; but it is unnecessary to expatiate on such expressions of the passions, or 
emotions of the mind, as are scaTcely worthy of being ranked among tho parts 
of speech. 

Sometimes, verbs, nouns, and adjectives, are uttered by way of exclamation, 
in a detached manner ; as, " Bless me ! Gracious heavens !" &c. 

liUerjeitioiLS are so called from the two Latin words later and jacio, which 
signify, to throw between; and this name is given them because they are thrown 
in. between the parts of a sentence, to express passion or emotion. 

Note. — The noun and verb are the two princijjal parts of speech ; that is to 
say, all other words are dependant on them, or added to them as auxiliaries. 
No complete sentence can be formed without the use of both, expressed or un- 
derstood, unless when a pronoun is used for a noun. 



OF DERIVATION. 

Of the various ways in which words are derived from one another, 

Havino treated of the different sorts of words, and their various modifioo- 
tions, which is the first part of Etymology, it is now proper to explain the 
methods by which one word is derived from another. 

Words are derived from one another in various ways, viz. 

1. Nouns are derived from verbs. 

2. Verbs arc derived from nouns, adjectives, and, sometimee, from 
adverbs. 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns. 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives. 

5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 

1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from " to love," comes " loveor ;" from 
" to visit, visiter;" from " to survive, survivor," &c. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to detomuie 
whether tho verb was deduced from the noun, or the noun from tho verb, w'l. 



) 



32 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



" Love, to love ; hate, to hate ; fear, to fear ; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk ; 
ride, to ride > act, to act," &c. 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs ; 
as, from the noun sait, comes " to salt ;" from the adjective warm, " to warm ;" 
and from the adverb forward, " to forward." Sometimes they are formed by 
lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant ; as, from "grass, to graze :" 
sometimes by adding en; as, from "length, to lengthen;" especially to adjec- 
tives ; as, from " short, to shorten ; bright, to brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns, in the following manner : 
Adjectives denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding y ; as, from 

" health, healthy ; wealth, wealthy ; might, mighty ;" &c. 

Adjectives denoting the matter^ out of which any thing is made, are de- 
rived from nouns by adding en ; as, from " oak, oaken ; wood, wooden ; wool, 
woollen;" &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns, by adding ful ; as, 
from " joy, jojrful ; sin, sinful ; fruit, fruitful ;" &c. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, are derived 
from nouns, by adding some ; us, from " light, lightsome ; trouble, troublesome ; 
toil, toilsome ;" »fcc. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns, by a.dding less ; as, from 
" worth, worthless ; care, careless ; joy, joyless ;" &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns, by adding hj ; as, from 
" man, manly ; earth, earthly ; court, courtly ;" &c. 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from nouns, by adding 
ish to tliem ; which termination when added to adjectives, imports diminution, 
or lessening the quality ; as, " white, whitish ;" i. e. somewhat white. When 
added to nouns, it signifies similitude or tendency to a character ; as, " child, 
childish ; thief, tliievish." 

Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs, by adding the termination 
able ; and those adj ectives signify capacity ; as, " answer, answerable ; to 
change, changeable." 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the termination 
ness ; as, " White, whiteness ; swift, swiftness;" sometimes oy adding th or t, 
and making a small change in some of the letters ; as, " long,, length ; high, 
height." 

oT Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding ly, or changing 
le into ly ; and denote the same quality as the adjectives from which they a-.e 
derived ; as, from " base," comes " basely ;" from " slow, slowly ;" from " able, 
ably." 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that it 
would be extremely difficult, and nearly impossible, to enumerate them. The 
primitive words of any language are very few ; the derivatives form much the 
greater number. A few more instaneee only can be given here. 



Some nouns are derived from others, by adding the terminations hood or head, 
ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment, and age. 

Nouns ending in hood or head, are such as signify character or qualities; as, 
" manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &c. 

Nouns ending in shij), are those that signify office, employment, state, or con- 
dition ; as, " lordship, stewardship, partnership," &c. Some nouns in ship, are 
derived from adjectives ; as, " hard, hardship," &c. 

Nouns which end in ery, signify action or habit ; as, slavery, foolery, 
prudery," &c. Some nouns of this sort come from adjectives ; as, " brave, 
bravery," &c. 

Nouns ending in wick, rick, and dom, denote dominion, jurisdiction, or con- 
dition ; as, " bailiwick, bishoprick, kingdom, dukedom, freedom," &c. 

Nouns which end in ian, are those that signify profession ; as, " physician, 
musician," »&c. Those that end in ment and age, come generally from the 
French, and commonly signify the act or habit ; as, " commandment, usage." 

Some nouns ending in ard, are derived from verbs or adjectives, and denote 
character or habit ; as, " drunk, drunkard ; dote, dotard." 

Some nouns have the form of diminutives ; but these are not many. They are 
formed by adding the terminations, kin, ling, ing, ock, el, and the like ; as, 
"lamb, lambkin; goose, gosling; duck, duckling; hiU, hiUock ; cock, cock- 
erel;" &c. 

That part of derivation which consists in tracing English words to the Saxon, 
Greek, Latin, French, and other languages, must be omitted, as the English 
scholar is not supposed to be acquainted with these languages. The best English 
dictionaries, will, however, furnish some information on this head, to those who 
are desirous of obtaining it. The learned Home Tooke, in his " Diversions 
of Purley," has given an ingenious account of the derivation and primitive 
meaning of many of the adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. 

It is highly probable that the system of this acute grammarian, is founded in 
truth ; and that adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, are corruptions or ab- 
breviations of other parts of speech. But as many of them are d^ved from 
obsolete words in our own language, or from words in kindred languages, the 
radical meaning of which is, t-herefore, either obscure, or generally unknown; 
as the system of this very able etymologist is not universally admitted ; and as, 
by long prescription, whatever may have been their origin^ the words in ques- 
tion appear to have acquired a title to the rank of distinct species ; it seems 
proper to consider them, as such, in an elementary treatise of grammar : espe- 
cially as this plan coincides with that, by which other languages must be taught ; 
and will render the study of them less intricate. It is of small moment, by what 
names and classification we distinguish these words, provided their meaning and, 
use be well understood. A pliilosophical consideration of the subject, may, 
with great propriety, be entered upon by the grammatical student, when lus 
knowledge and judgment become sufficiently improved. 



SYNTAX. 



Syntax treats of the agreement, government, and proper arrange- 
ment of words and sentences. 

Agreement is when one word is like another in number, case, gen- 
der, or person. 

Government is when one word causes another to be in some par- 
ticular mood, tense, or case. 

RULE 1. 

The nominative case governs the verb; as, "i walk ; thou lovest; 
he runs." 

Note 1. — The infinitive mood, a sentence, or part of a sentence is, some- 
times, the nominative to a verb ; in which case the verb is ever in the third per- 
son singular ; as, " To err is human." " To die is the inevitable lot of man." 
" To see the bright sun is pleasant." " That virtue ■will be rewarded arid vice 
punished, is a doctrine plainly taught in the bible." 

Note 2. — It is a general rule, that there should be no nominative case in a 
sentence without a verb expressed or implied ; except it be in the nominative case 
independent. Sometimes, however, redundant words are peculiarly emphatical ; 
as, " He that hath ears to hear, let him hear." In this sentence, the pronoun he 
lias no verb to answer to it, expressed or understood ; yet the construction is 
much more forcible tlian it would be to say, " Let him hear, that hath ears to 
liear." 

Note 3. — An adjective, without a noun expressed, having the definite article 
before it, is used as a noun, and is generally in the third person plural ; as, " The 
sincere are always esteemed ;" " Providence rewards the good." 

The nominative case, generally, comes before the verb ; as, " He walks ;" &c. 
but when a question is asked or a command given, the nominative follows the 
helping verb, or the principal verb; as, " Shall he come .' Go thou." In many 
other instances the nominative follows the verb. 

To find the nominative to a verb, ask the question who ? which ? or what ? 
and tlie word that answers the question, is the nominative ; as, " Dick is idle." 
Wlio is idle.' answer, Dick. Dick is, therefore, the nominative. 

RULE IL 

The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person ; 
as, " He improves ;" " The birds sing." 



Note 1. — Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, must have a nominative 
case ; but elegance often requires that the nominative be not expressed. Thia is 
especially the case, when the verb is in the imperative mood ; as, " Come on, 
learn, read." 

Note 2. — When a verb is placed between two nominatives of different num- 
bers, it may agree with either ; but it is generally made to agree with the first, 
and this may be considered as preferable ; as, " Words are wind." 

Note 3. — When the nominative is a collective noun, or noun of multitude, 
conveying an idea that the whole is considered as one united in a body, the verb 
and pronoun must agree with it in the singular number ; as, " The meeting was 
large, and it held three hours ;" but, if the nominative convey an idea that the 
whole is not considered as one, but as many, the verb and pronoun must be in 
the plural number ; as, " The council were divided in their opinion." No pre- 
cise rule can be given to dii ect in every case, wliich number is to be used. 
Much'regard is to be had to usage, and to the unity, or plurality of idea. In 
general, modern practice inclines to the use of the plural verb, as may be seen 
by the daily use of clergy, nobility, court, council, commonalty, enemy, and the 
like. 

Note 4. — When a collective noun is preceded by a, this, or that, or any other 
word which clearly limits the sense to unity, it requires a verb and pronoun in 
the singular number ; as, " A company of troops 2cas collected;" " This people is 
become a great nation." Yet our language seems to be averse to the use of ii, as 
the substitute for nouns even tlius limited by a, this, or that. " How long will 
this people provoke me, and how long will it be ere they will believe me lor all 
the signs that I have showed among them ?" " Liberty should reacli every indi- 
vidual of a people ; as they all share one common nature." In these passages, it 
in the place of they, would not be relislied by an English ear. 

RULE in. 

Articles and adjectives belong to nouns, which they qualify or de- 
fine ; as, " A toise man ; the king ; this book, those books." 

An adjective is usually placed before the noim to which it relates ; as, " A 
tcise prince, a brave soldier." But it is frequently placed after the noun, especial- 
ly in poetry ; as, " Fruit pleasant to the taste ;" " The genuine cause of every 
deed divine." 

The article commonly precedes the adjective and noun; as, "^ learned 
man ;" but it is occasionally placed between the adjective and notm; thus, "So 
rich a dress ;" " As splendid a retinue ;" " He is too careless an author." 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



33 



Note 1. — The indefinite article a or mi is prefixed to nouns in the singular 
number only, individually or collectively ; as, " ^ Christian, a?i infidel, a com- 
pany.'" A should be used before words beginning' with a consonant, or u soimd- 
ed like iju; as, " j3 man, a unicorn." .4 should likewise be used before a diph- 
thong sounded like yu ; as, " A eunuch ;" and before words beginning with a 
vowel sounded like w ; as, " Many a one." An must be used before words be- 
ginning with a vowel, or silent h; as, " An apple, an hour ;" and before li not 
silent, when the accent is on the second syllable ; as, " An herculean task." 

Note 2. — The definite article the, is prefixed to nouns both in the singular 
and plural ; as, " The garden, the houses, the stars." 

Note 3. — When tlie number or quantity of any thing is intended to be ex- 
pressed in a positive manner, the article a or an should be used ; but when a 
negative meaning is intended, the article should be omitted. Thus, if I say, 
" fle spoke with a little reverence ^"t my meaning is positive, and I rather praise 
the person ; but if I say, " He spoke with little reverence," my meaning is 
negative, and I dispraise him. " Few were pleased, and a few were pleased," 
convey very different ideas. 

Note 4. — Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood ; as, 
" To see is pleasant— to ride is more ug reeable than to walk — to calumniate is 
detestable." And sometimes the adjective belongs to the infinitive mood, in union 
with another adjective or a noun; " To be blind is unfortunate ; to be a coward 
is disgraceful." Here the adjective unfortunate, is the adjective of the first 
clause, to he blind, &c. 

NoTjE 5 — Adjectives are sometimes used to modify the action of the verb, and 
to express the qualities of things in connexion with the action by which they are 
produced. Examples; " Magnesia feels swioofA; calcarious earths feel dry; the 
apples bcil soft or hard." The words here used cannot be- adverbs, neither can 
they be changed into adverbs without destroying the meaning of the passages. 
Let the sentences be put to the test ; " Magnesia feels smoothly- — calcarious 
earths fee^ryly — the apples boil softly or hardly." 

Note (^-When a noun is attended by two or more adjectives, that which more 
nearly relates to it should be placed next ; as, " A rich old man ;" not, " An old 
rich man." We sometimes meet with adjectives applied to wrong nouns ; as in the 
phrases, "Anew pair of shoes ; a good piece of land." The shoes are new, not the 
pair; the land is good, and not the piece. It should be, " A pair of new shaes ; a 
piece of good land." Care must be taken jiot to use such adjectives as are im- 
proper to be applied to the nouns with winch they are used ; as, " Good virtues, 
bad vices, pj,inflil tooth-aches, pleasing pleasures." These are staringly absurd. 
Note 7. — Double comparatives and superlatives, most straightest, most high- 
est, &c. being improper and useless, are not tQ be used. Adjectives that have in 
themselves a superlative signification, and such as do not admit of increase or 
diminution, should not be compared ; as, " Chief, extreme, perfect, right, uni- 
versal, supreme, square, round," &c. which are sometimes iihproperly written, 
" Cliiefest, extreraest, perfectest, rightest, most universal, most supreme, squarest, 
roundest," &c. 

When an adjective or adverb is used in a comparison between two persons or 
things only, it should be in the comparative degree ; but when three or more are 
implied, the superlative should be used ; as, " He is the stronger of the two." 
" This is the best pen of the three." 

Note 8. — This and that, the only adjectives varied to express number, must 
agree in number with the nouns to which they refer ; as, " This city, tliat 
church ; these cities, those churches." 

Adjectives conveying unity or plurality of idea, require nouns agreeing with 
them accordingly ; as, " One foot, six feet ;" not six foot. In some tecnnical 
terms, an adjective conveying plurality of idea, is jomed with a singular noun ; 
as, " twenty sail of vessels, ten head of cattle." But such phrases as, tioenty foot, 
forty pound, &c. are un^raminatical. 

Note 9. — The pronominal adjectives, each, every, either, neither, another, t&c. 
represent, or relate to, nouns of the singular number only, or such as convey a 
collective idea, and require nouns, pronouns, and verbs, agreeing with them in 
the singular number ; as, " Every tree is known by its fruit." 

Each and every signify the whole of any number taken distinctly or separately : 
either and neither signify only one or the other of two persons or things ; and they 
should be used accordingly. 

Note 10. — Tlic pronoun them should not be used as an adjective to any noun ; 
as, " Give me those books ;'' not them books. 

In some cases it is difficult to determine, whether the pronominal adjectives 
these or those, or the pronouns they or tliem is preferable ; as, " Those that sow 
in tears, shall reap in joy ;'' or, " they that sow," &c. " We do not wish to be ac- 
quainted with them vnvt are given to detraction," or, "'with those wlio arc given 
to detraction." In aiicii sentences, the easy flow and perspicuity of liio languiigo 
should be chieflv regarded. 

Note II. — Tlio noun mean sigriidns mediocrity, or middle state, and is always 
of the singular number ; as, " This is a,rriean between the t\Vo oxtroiiins." liut 
it sboiild not be used to express the cause, or reason, or iiistriimcnt ol'un action, 
which should bo oxpTCHsed l)y the noun mr.uns. Like some other nouns ofa Biinilar 
construction, menus does not change its termination on account of number ; and 
the adjoclives Ihi.y, that. &c. should agree with it acconiimrly, as it refers to 
wli:it iH siniruliir (11- plural; as, "Me liveil temperately, and hy this means pre- 
Beryod his health ;" " The scliolars wore attentive, induslrious, and obedient to 
their tutors, and by these means acquired knowledge." 

Young piirsoiiH wlui study gr.niniiiar liad it dilhcult to decide, in particular 
coustructiDus, whellK^r an udjcclire or an adrerb ought to bo used. A few ob- 
srrviitions nn tliis j)(>itij,, may servo to inform their judgment, and direct their 
dotoruiinalion. They should carofidly attend to tlio deiinilion of tlio adjoctivo 
nnd the advorb, and see whetlicr, in tho case in (piestion, quality or manner in 
indicated. In tlie former case, an adjective is proper ; in the latter, an adverb. 
A nuinl)cr oJ* "xnrnplcs will illuslrato this direction, and jirovo useful on other 
occasions. " SliR looks cold; she looks coldly on him." " He feels warm; ho 



feels warmly the insult offered to him." " He became sincere and virtuous; he 
became sincere^?/ virtuous." "She lives /ree firom care ; she lives /reeZy at ano- 
ther's expense." " Harriet always appears neat ; she dresses neatly." " Charles 
has grown great by his wisdom; he has grown greatly in reputation." " They 
now appear happy ; they now appear, happily in earnest." " The statement 
seems exact ; the statement seems exactly in point." The verb to he, in all 
its moods and tenses, generally requires the word immediately connected with 
it to be an adjective, not an adverb ; and, consequently, when this verb can be 
substituted for any other, without varying the sense or the construction, that 
other verb must also be connected with an adjective. The following sentences 
elucidate these observations ; " This is agreeable to our interest." " Rules should 
be conformable to sense." 

is is 

" The rose smells sweet ; How sweet the hay smells ! How delightful the coon- 
is are are 
try appears ! How pleasant the fields look ! The clouds look dark ; How black 

was are were is 

the sky looked ! The apples taste sour ; How bitter the plums tasted ! He feels 
happy." In all these sentences, we can, with perfect propriety, substitute some 
tenses of the verb to be for the other verbs : but in the following sentences we 
cannot do this ; " George feels disagreeably ;" " How pleasantly she looks at us !" 
If we should say, George is disagreeable, it would vary the sense ; and if we 
should say. How pleasant she is at us ! it would be no sense at all. . These direc- 
tions are offered as useful, not as complete and unexceptionable. Anomalies in 
language every where encounter us ; but we must not reject rules because they 
are attended with exceptions. 

Note 12. — The adjective such is often misapplied ; as, " He was such an ex- 
travagiftit young nian, that he spent his whole patrimony in a few years ;" it 
should be, " so extravagant a young man." "I never before saw smcA large 
trees ;" " saw trees so large." When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, 
the word such is properly applied ; as, " Such a temper is seldom found ;" but 
when degree is signified, we use the word so ; as, "6'o bad a temper is seldom 
found," 

RULE IV. 

Participles, like verbs, relate to nouns or pronouns ; as, " I saw 
him labouring in the field." 

Note 1. — Participles sometimes agree with a sentence, or part of a sentence ; 
as, "According to Hierocles, Ammonius was induced to execute the plan of a 
distinct elective school." Here, according relates to the whole statement of facts 
in the last clause ; " Ammonius was induced to execute the plan of a distinct 
elective school" — all which is according to Hierocles. 

Note 2. — Participles often stand without a noun, pronoun, or sentence on 
which they immediately depend, being referable to either of the persons indefi- 
nitely ; as, " It is impossible to act otherwise, considering the weakness of our 
nature." " Granting this to be true, it would help us but little." " Generally 
speaking, the heir at law is not bound by the intention of the testator." " Com- 
paring two men, in reference to a common parent, it is easy to frame the idea 
of brothers." , 

RULE V. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs ; 
as, " He spoke eloquently." " Having lived prudently, he became 
rich." '" He is unaffectedly polite." " He writes very correctly." 

Note 1. — Adverbs, though they have no government of case, tense, «&c. re- 
quire an appropriate situation in the sentence ; viz. for the most part before ad- 
jectives, after verbs, when single ; and between the auxiliary and the verb, 
when compound ; as, " A very prudent woman." " She behaves discreetly, and 
is much admired." 

Wlion two auxiliaries are used, tho adverb is usually placed after tho second ; 
as, " We have been kindly treated." 

Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the verb, or after it, 
whether simple or compound ; and often at some distance from the verb. Hence 
it appears that, no exact and determinate rule can bo given for tlie ])lacing of 
adverbs on all occasions. The general rule may be of considerable use ; but, tho 
easy flow and perspicuity of the phrase are the things wliich ought to bo chiefly 
regarded. 

Tlie adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds notiiing 
to the sense ; in which ciiso it precedes tho verb and tho nominative noun ; as, 
" There is a jiorson at tho door ;" which would bo as well or butter expressed by 
saying, " A person is at the door." 

JYever soeiiiH to be improperly used in tho following passages ; " Ask ine verer 
.so much dowry and gill." '' If 1 make my hiuidw ncrcr so clean." The word ever 
would 1)11 more suitable to the sense. 

Note 2. — Tho adverb not should follow the conjunctions lo/icther, or, when a 
contrast is intended ; as, '• lie would proceed vvhiitlier ho obtained permisHion or 
not ;" not " whet her he obtained permission or no." 

Note :{. — 'I'lin adverbs where, here, and there, .iliould not bo used for whereby, 
herein, and therein ; or whore a iireposition and relative pronoun would bo more 
clogiint and expressive ; as, " An account was drawn in which (not xchcre) their 
suffcriiigB were represented." 

Notk 4. — Adverbs of time and place, are frcqiiontly preceded by a preposition, 
and convey tho moaning of nouns ; but tlii.^i construction should generally bo 
avoided, and tho noun applied; thus, instead of, "He went from here, it 
should be, " From this plure." — Hither, thither, and whither, denoting to a 
place, are obsolete in popular practice ; being superseded by here, there, and 
where ; as, " Where shall we go," iuFtcad of, " Whither shall we go." 

NofE 5. — Hence, whence, and thence, are used with or without the preposition 



u 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



from. In strictness, the idea of from is included in the words, and it ought not 
to be used. The adverb hoio should not be used before tho conjunction that, or 
instead of it ; as, " He was informed that he must go ;" not, " how that he 
must go." 

Note 6. — ^We have some examples of adverbs being used for nouns ; as, " It 
is not worth their while." We are accustomed to use as adverbs, a little, and a 
great deal ; as, " The many letters I receive, do not a little encourage me." 
" Indeed, they encourage me a great deal." Many nouns are used in the like 
manner, as modifiers of the sense of verbs. " You don't caxe six-pence whether 
he was wet or dry." Johnson. 

Note 7. — Two negatives in English destroy one another, or are equivalent 
to an affirmative; as, " JVor did they not perceive him;" that is, "They did 
perceive him." " His language, though inelegant, is not wragrammatical ;" that 
is, " It is grammatical." It is better to express an affirmation by a regular af- 
fiteiative, than by two separate negatives, as in the former sentence ; but where 
one of the negatives is joined to another word, as in the latter sentence, the two 
negatives form a pleasing and delicate variety of expression. 

Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead of one to ex- 
press negation ; as, " I cannot by no means allow him what his argument is in- 
tended to prove." I cannot by any means, &c. or, I can by no means. " J^or 
let no comforter approach me ;" nor let any comforter, &c. " I never did re- 
pent of doing good, nor shall not now ;" nor shall I now. " Never no imitator 
grew up to his author ;" never did any, &c. " JVor is danger ever apprehended 
in such a government, no more than we commonly apprehend danger from thun- 
der or earthquake ;" any more. " Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than Raphael, 
were not born in republics." Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than 
Raphael, was born in a republic. 

RULE VI. 

Active verbs govern the objective case ; as, "Alexander conquered 
the Persians." 

Nouns and pronouns, especially in poetry, are frequently transposed from 
their natural order, and when in the objective case, come before the verbs 
which govern them, and when in the nominative, come after the verbs ; as, 
" She with extended arms Iiis aid implores." " Him declare I unto you." 

Whom, and which, when in the objective case, always precede the verb. 

Note 1. — It often happens that active verbs and their participles govern two 
objective words ; one expressing the person, and the other the thing ; as, " He 
taught them philosophy." And sometimes the active verb governs two nouns in 
the objective, both of which are expressive of things only ; as, " The liter-ati who 
make etymology the invariable rule of pronunciation." 

The position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper case and govern- 
ment to be neglected ; as in the following sentences ; " Who should I esteem more 
than the wise and good .'" " By the character of those loho you choose for your 
friends, your own is likely to be formed." " Those are the persons who he thought 
true to his interest." " Who should I see the other day but my old friend." 
" Whosoever the court favours." " Who do you see ?" In all these instances it 
ought to be whom, the pronoun being governed in the objective case by the 
verbs esteem, choose, thought, see, &c. " He who, under all proper circum- 
stances, has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend." It should be, 
Him who, &c. 

Note 2. — Some verbs were formerly used as transitive, which are no longer 
considered as such ; as, " He repented him — flee thee away — he was survived — 
the sum was amounted ;" &c. which are held improper. 

Note 3. — Some neuter verbs assume a transitive form ; as, " To live a life of 
virtue." " To die the death of the righteous." " To dream dreams." " To run 
a race." " To sleep the sleep of death." " To walk the horse." " To dance the 
child." " And rivers run potable gold." " The crisped brooks ran nectar." 
" Groves whoso rich trees wept odorous gums and balms." " Grin a ghastly 
smile." " Her lips blush deeper sweets." 

In these examples, and many others of the like kind, the verbs may not impro- 
perly be denominated active, although the nouns which follow them are not in 
strictness their objects ; but they are either the names of the result of the verb's 
action, or closely connected with it. 

Nearly allied to this idiom is that of using after transitive verbs, certain nouns 
which do not appear to be tla objects of the verb, nor of precisely the same 
sense. Examples — " A guinea weighs five pennyweights, six grains." " A 
crown weighs nineteen pennyweights." " A piece of cloth measures ten yards," 
&c. But in these and similar examples, the noun may be called the objective 
case. 

Note 4. — It sometimes happens that nouns in the objective case, carry the 
appearance of being governed by a verb, when they are, in fact, governed by a 
praposition, or some other word understood ; as, " He resided many years in that 
street ;" that is, for or during many years. " He rode several miles on that day ;" 
that is, for or through tlie space^of several miles. " He lay an hour in great tor- 
ture ;" that is, during an hour. 

RULE VII. 

Participles have the same government as the verbs have, from 
which they are derived; as, "They found liiin transgressing the 

laws." Note. Here transgressing is a present participle, from the 

active verb transgress, and governs laws in the objective case. 

NoTB 1. — Participles are often used as nouns, in which character they may 
be in the nominative or objective case ; and, like nouns, may govern the possessive 
caae. It not unfrequently happens, that tliey perform at once, the office of a 
verb and noun ; as, " The taking from anotlier wliat is his, witliout liis kijow- 
ledge or allowance, is called stealing." " By the mind's changing the object to 



which it compares any thing." " To save tkem from other people's damning 
them." "Such a plan is not capable of being carried into execution." " They 
could not avoid submitting to tWs influence." " Suppose a Christian, Platonist, 
or Pythagorean, should, upon God's having ended aM his works, think his soul 
hath existed ever since." " Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mis- 
chief." " He Was displeased with the king's having disposed of the office, or with 
his having bestowed it upon a worthless man." " Its excesses may be restrained 
without destroying its existence." " He was near losing his life." 

Note 2. — When the participle of the present time is preceded by a or the, it 
takes the character and government of nouns ; and, in most cases, must be fol- 
lowed by of ; as, " The repenting of sinners gives joy to the celestial regions." 
" This was a betraying of the trust reposed in him." " These are the rules of 
grammar, by the observing of which you may avoid mistakes." 

If either the or of be omitted, we should generally omit both. It would not 
be proper to say, " by the observing which," nor, " by observing of which ;" 
but the phrase without either article or preposition would be right; as, "by 
observing which." 

Note 3. — As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are sometimes 
different in their form, caro must be taken that they be not indiscriminately 
used. It is frequently said, " He begun," for ',' he began ;" " he nm," for 
"he ran;" "he drunk,". for "he drank;" the participle being here used in- 
stead of the imperfect tense ; and much more frequently the imperfect tense 
instead of the participle; as, "I had wrote," for "I had written;" "I was 
chose," for " I was chosen ;" " I have eat," for " I have eaten." 

The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted by changing ed into 
t ; as, " In good behaviour he is not surpast by any pupil of the school." " She 
was much distrest." They ought to be, surpassed, distressed. 

RULE VIIL 

Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, " JFVom New- York to 
Philadelphia ; across the Delaware ; over land ; by water ; through 
the air ; with us ; for me ; to them ; in you ; among the people ; 
towards us." 

In general, the preposition is placed next before a pronoun ; sls, " to him, for 
us;" but it may be separated from a noun by an adjective and article ; aa, "In 
the busy scenes of life." An accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is 
of great importance. 

Note 1. — Elegance requires, that we do not use prepositions in conjunction 
with those verbs that preserve their signification without the preposition ; as, 
".Accept it; admit him; approve; address; attain." These axe more elegant 
than " accept of it ; admit of him," &c. 

Note 2. — The preposition is often separated from the relative which it go- 
verns ; as, " Whom wilt thou give it to 9" instead of, " To whom wilt thon give 
it .'"' " He is an author wlwm I am much delighted with ;" instead of, " withwkom 
I am much delighted." 

This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined ; it prevails in 
common conversation, and suits very well 'with the familiar style in writing : 
but the placing of the preposition before the relative, is more graceful, as well as 
more perspicuous, and agrees much better with the solemn and eievated style. 

In many cases, the relative pronoun is suppressed ; as, " I did not see the per- 
son he came with;" that is, " with whom he came." But this is most common 
and most allowable in colloquial and epistolary language : in the grave and ele- 
vated style, it is seldom elegant ; and never to be admitted to the injury of 
perspicuity. 

Note 3. — Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to 
connect different prepositions with the same noun ; as, " To suppose the sodia« 
and planets to be efficient of, and antecedent (o, themselves." This mode of ex- 
pression, whether in the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, and 
should generally be avoided. In forms of law, and the like, where great exact- 
ness is requisite, it may be admitted. 

Note 4. — Prepositions are often omitted, especially before pronouns ; as, 
" Give it me;" " Buy him some books ;" that is, to me ; for him. " Wo is 
Tne;" that is, to me. " He was banished the kingdom ;" that is, froyn the king- 
dom. After the adjective near, to is often omitted ; as, " To bring them ntar*r 
the truth." Also after adjoining ; as, " A garden adjoining a river." After 
worth and like there is an ellipses of of and to ; as, " The book is worth a dollar ;" 
that is, worthy of a dollar. " She is like the lovely Thais ;" that is, like to the 
lovely Thais. 

Home, after a verb denoting motion to, is always used without to ; as, " We 
are going home." Nouns that signify the time when, or how long, or that signify 
space, are generally governed by prepositions understood ; as, " He went home 
last week;" that is, on last week. "He lived four years at college;" that is, 
<Z«rm^ four years. " Walk a mile ;" that is, <Aroi/^A the space of a mile. "All 
the days of my appointed time will I wait ;" that is, through all the days ; «r, 
during all the days. 

Note 5. — Different relations, and different senses must be expressed by dif- 
ferent prepositions, though in conjunction with the same verb. Thus we eay, 
" To converse with a person, upon a subject, in a house," «Sic. But two diflfareot 
prepositions must be improper in the same construction, and in tlio same sen- 
tence ; as, " The combat between thirty French, against twenty English." 

We are disappointed of a thing, when we have expected it, and cannot now 
obtain it ; and disappointed in a thing, when we have obtained (t, and find it 
does not answer our expectations. In soma cases it is difficult to determine to 
which of two prepositions the preference is to be given, as both are used pre- 
miscuously, and custom has not decided in favour of either of them. Wo say. 
" Export at a thing, and expert in a thing." The easy flow and perspieoity of 
the language, in such cases, should be cluefly regarded. 



itaiHilH 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



3S 



Norm 6. — The preposition among, generally implies a number of things ; it 
should not, therefore, be used before the adjectives each, every, either, and one 
another, or such as convey unity of idea ; for example, instead of saying,," The 
same instinct ia found among every kuid of birds." It should be, in every kiiid. 

Note 7. — The preposition to, is made use of before nouns of place when they 
follovir verbs and participles of motion ; as, " I went to London ;" " I am going 
to town." But the preposition at, is generally used after the verb to be; as, "1 
have been at London ;" " I was at the place appointed ;" " I shall be at Paris." 
We likewise say, " He touched, or arrived at any place." The preposition in, 
is set before counties, cities, and large towns ; as, " He lives in France, in Lon- 
don, m Birmingham." But before villages, single houses, and cities which are 
in distant countries, at ia used ; as, " He lives at Hackney ;" " He resides at 
Montpelier." 

Note 8. — In general, the same preposition should follow a noun, that elegance represented her to have been ; 
requires should follow the verb, from which the noun is derived. 



RULE IX. 

Neutet veths h4*e the same case after, as before them • as " I 



Verbs. 
To comply with. 
To engage in. 
To prevail over. 
To condescend to. 
To depart /rom. 
To bestow upon. 
To accuse of. 
To detract /rom. 
To derogate /rom. 
To differ /ro7ra. In resemblance. 
To differ with. In a quarrel. 
Averse from. 



Nouns. 
In compliance with. 
Engagement m. 
Prevalence over. 
Condescension to. 
Departure from. 
Bestowment upon. 
Accusation of. 
Detraction from. 
Derogation from, 
Difference /rowi. 
Difference with. 
Aversion /rom. 



In resemblance. 
In a quarrel. 



Note 9. — English verbs are often compounded of a preposition and a verb ; 
".Sj " To understand, to outgo, to withdraw." When the preposition is placed 
before the vorb, it gives the verb a meaning very different from what it has, 
when placed after the verb ; as, " To understand," signifies to know ; " To stand 
under," signifies to stand under something. 

Note 10. — In the use of prepositions, and words that relate to each other, 

particular regard should be had to the meaning of the words or sentences with 

which they are connected : all the parts of a sentence should correspond to each 

' other, and a regular and clear construction should be carefully preserved 

throughout. 

As tliis note comprehends all the rules and notes of syntax, it may, at the 
first view, appear to be too general to be useM : but its utility may be discover- 
ed by carefully observing the connexion and dependance of words in a sentence ; 
and its importance will be readily admitted, when we consider that it may be 
properly applied to the correction of many erroneous forms of expressions, which 
none of the less general rules and notes can be brought to bear upon. 

In order more fully to illustrate the subject, the following examples, which 
are, in some respect or other, faulty in their construction, are subjoined, and the 
errors pointed out. 

" He was resolved o/ going to the city." To be resolved of doing an action is 
improper ; the relation between the resolution and the action, not being clearly 
expressed by the preposition of, which denotes possession or consequence. It 
should be, on. 

The relation or connexion expressed by the prepositions in the following sen- 
tences, is not clear and applicable. " In compliance to his l..junctions ;" " with 
his injunctions." " He became reconciled with his lot ;" " to his lot." " Such 
business as came into their notice ;" " under their notice." 

" A beautiful field and trees," is not proper language ; the article a, and the 
adjective beautiful, having the same relation to the noun trees, as to the noun 
field ; but it would be absurd to say, " a beautiftil trees :" it should be, " a 
beautiful field and fine trees ;" or, " beautiful fields and trees ;" and the con- 
struction is rendered clear and regular. 

" This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be pub- 
lished." In this sentence the auxiliaries has, is, and shall be, equally relate to 
the verb published. But it would be manifestly improper to say, " any book that 
has published " — and " is published," is unnecessary. It should be, " any book 
that has been, or sludl be published." 

" He was more beloved, but not so much admired, as Cinthio." It should be, 
" he waa more beloved than Cinthio, but not so much admired." This example 
presents a most irregular construction, namely, " ho was more beloved as 
Cinthio." 

" They presently grow into good humour, and good language towards the 
crown ;" " grow into good language," is very improper. 

" The court of chancery frequently mitigates ^nd breaks the teeth of the 
common law." In this construction, the first verb is said, " to mitigate the teeth 
of the common law," which is an evident solecism. " There is never wanting a 
set of evil instruments, who either out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy 
lucre, are always ready," &c. We say properly, "A man acts out of mad zeal," 
or, " out of private hatred ;" but we cannot say, if we mean to speak English, 
" He acts out of filthy lucre." 

In the use of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, 
a due regard to that relation should be observed. Instead of saying, " The Lord 
hath given, and the Lord htUh taken away ;" we should say " The Lord gave, 
and tne Lord luith taken a-Way." Instead of, '•' I remember the family more than 
twenty years ;" it should be, " I have remembered the family more than twenty 
years." 

It is not easy to give particular rules for the management of the moods and 
tenses of verbs with respect to one another, so that they may be proper and con- 
sistent. The best rule that can be given, is this very general one ; To observe 
what the sense necessarily requires. 

9 



am he whom they invited ;": " It may be, or, might have been he; but 
it cannot be, or, could not have been I;" " It is impossible to be they ;" 
"It seems to have been he, who conducted himself so wisely ■" "It 
appeared to be she, that transacted the business ;" " I understood' it 
to be him;" " I believe it to have been them ;" " We at first took it 
to be her ; but were afterwards convinced that it was not she;" "He 
is not the person, icho it seemed he was ;" " He is really the person 
who he appeared to be ;" " She is not now the woman, whom they 

;" "Whom do you fancy him to be ?" 

As neuter verbs express only being, or a state or condition of being, they can- 
not with propriety be said to govern ; and it is manifest that a noun or pronoim 
following them, can only express the subject in a different form, or under a dif- 
ferent name or term, and must, therefore, be in the same case as the one preced- 
ing, whether nominative or objective. Perhaps this subject will b« more inteSi- 
gible to the learner, by observing, that the words in the cases preceding and 
following the verb to be, may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus, in 
the sentence, " I understood it to be him;" the words it and 7wm are in apposi- 
tion ; that is, they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case. This rule is 
generally applied to the verb to be ; but it is occasionally applicable to other 
neuter verbs; as in the fdJlbVing examples, " A cffif/ becomes an ox." "She 
looks a goddess, and she moves a queen." 

" Tom struts a soldier, open, bold, and brave : 

Will sneaks a scriv'ner, an exceeding knave." pope. 

" Before the glim'jnering moon, with borrow'd light. 
Shone qufieri amid the silver host of night; 
High in tlie heavens iApit reign'dst superior Lord, 

By suppliant angels worship'd and ador'd." dwight. 

" To them gave he power to become the sons of God." 

The noun or pronoun can never be in the objective case, after the neuter verb, 
imless the verb be in the infinitive rnopd. • , 

Note 1. -^Passive verbs, and participles of neuter VBrbs, followed by a noun 
or pronoun, must have the same case after, as before them ; as, " The child was 
named Thomas;" " He was called Cesar ;" " Homer is styled the prince of poets ;" 
" James was created a duke ;" " The general was saluted emperor ;" " The pro- 
fessor was appointed tutor to the prince ;" " Now in the fifteenth year of the 
reign of Tiberius Cesar, Pontius Pilate being Governor of Judea, and Herod be- 
ing Tetrarch of Galilee, Annas and Caiaphas being the higli Priests, the word 
of God came unto Jolin." 

RULE X. 

A noun or pronoun, signifying possession, is governed by the noun 
it possesses; as, " My father's house ;" " Maw's happiness ;" " FiW 
#Mc's reward ;" " The hook is hers ;" "7ifs value is great;" "Sarah's 
hat is lost, but her gloves are here." 

When the thing possessed is obvious, it is usual to omit the name ; as, " Let 
us go to St. Paul's," that is, church; " He is at the President's," that is, Iwuse 
In poetry the additional s is frequently omitted, but the apostrophe retained in 
the same manner as when plural nouns end in s ; as, " The wrath of Pelcus' 
son." This seems not so allowable in prose ; which the following erroneous ex- 
amples will illustrate. " Moses' minister ;" " Festus caqne into Felix' room ;' 
" These answers were made to the witness' questions." 

But in cases which would give too much of the hissing sound, or increase the 
difficulty of pronunciation, the omission taltes place even in prose ; as, " For 
righteotisncss' sake ;" " For conscience' sake." 

The possessive case is sometimes expressed by a circimilocution, that is to say, 
by several words instead of one, which are, in effect, but one name ; as, " The 
king of England's throne." Sometimes by two or more nouns in apposition ; as, 
" For David my servant's sake." And sometimes several noims come together 
in the possessive case that are not in apposition ; as, " I had the physician's, the 
surgeon's, and the apothecary's assistance." 

In expressions like these, it may occasion some doubt to which of the nouns 
the sign of the possessive should be annexed, or whether it should be subjoined 
to them all. We subjoin a few remarks on the subject, which may be usefiil to 
the learner. 

Note 1. — When the possessor is described by a circumlocution, the sign of 
the possessive is commonly added to the last term only ; as, " The duke ofBridge- 
iifater's canal ;" " The bisliop of Landaff's excellent book ;' " The lord mayor 
of London's authority ;" " The captain, of the guard's house." 

Note 2. — Wlien tne possessor is described by two or more nouns in apposi- 
tion, the sign of the possessive is generally annexed to the last only ; as, "Paul 
the apostle's advice ;" " John the baptist's head." 

But when a pause is proper, and tne governing noun is not expressed, it ap-. 
pears to be requisite, that the sign should be applied to the first possessive only, 
and understood of the rest ; as, " I reside at lord Stormvnt's, my old /matron and 
benefactor." " Whose glory did he emulate ?" " He emulated Cesar's, the greatest 
general of antiquity." " I left the parcel at Smith's the stationer and booZscUer." 

In the following sentences it would appear very awkward to place the sign, 
either at the end of each of the clauses in apposition, or at the endiof the latter one 
only; as, "These psalms are David's, the king, priest, undprephet of the Jewish 
people." " We stayed a month at lord Lyttlclon's the ornament of his country, and 
the friend of every virtue." The sign of the possessive case may, very properly, 
be understood at the end of these members; an ellip.sis at tiio latter part of sen- 



36 



GRAMMAR SIMPUFIED. 






tences being a common construction in our language, as the learner will see 
bv one or two examples ; " They wished to submit, but he did not ;" that is, " he 
did not wish to submit." " He said it was their concern, but not his ;" that is, 
" not his concern" . ■, - , , 

If we annex the sign of the possessive to the end of the last clause only, we 
shall perceive that a resting-place is wanted, and that the connecting circum- 
stance is placed too remotely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable; as, 
" Whose o-lory did he emulate ?" ";He emulated Cesar, the greatest general of 
arttigtaty's." " These psalms are David, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jew- 
ish people's." It is much better to say, " This is Paul's advice, the Christian 
hero and great apostle of the gentiles," than, " This is Paul, the Christian hero, 
and great apostle of the gentiles' advice." On the other hand, the application of 
the possessive sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition, would be generally 
harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some cases incorrect ; as, " The emperor's 
Leopold's; King's George's; Charles' the second's;" " I left the parcel at Smith's, 
the bookseller's, and stationer's." 

Note 3. — When the thing possessed is represented as belonging to a number 
severally specified, which consequently cannot be in apposition, the sign of the pos- 
sessive is annexed to the last Only, and understood to the rest ; as, " John and 
Eliza's books ;" " This was my father, mother, and uncle's advice." But when 
any words intervene, perhaps on account of the increased pause, the sign of the 
possessive should be repeated with each ; as, " They are John's as well as Eliza's 
books ;" " I had the physician's, the surgeon's, and the apothecary's assistance." 
Sometimes, though rarely, two nomis in the possessive case immediately succeed 
each other, in the following form ; as, " My friend's wife's sister ;" better ex- 
pressed, perhaps, by saying, " The sister of my friend's wife." 

The preposition of before the name of the possessor, is generally equivalent 
to the possessive case ; thus, instead of saying, " Virtue's leward ;" we may say, 
" The reward of virtue;" and, as the English possessive has often an unpleasant 
sound, we daily make use of the particle of, to express the same relation. 
There is something awkward in the following sentences, in which this method 
has not been taken. " The general in the army's name, published a declaration." 
" The commons' vote." " The lords' house." " Unless he be very ignorant of the 
kingdom's condition." It would certainly be better to say, " In the name of the 
army." " The vote of the commons." " The house of lords." " The condition of 
the kingdom." It is also rather harsh to use two possessives with the same noim ; 
as, " Whom he acquainted with the pope's and the king's pleasure." " The 
pleasure of the pope and the king," would be better. It would likewise sound bet- 
ter to say, " The head of John the baptist ;" than, " John the baptist's head." 

Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward between a pos- 
sessive case, and the word or words which usually follow it ; as, " She began to 
extol the farmer's, (as she called him,) excellent understanding." It ought to be, 
" the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." 

We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one another, and 
connected by the preposition of applied to each of them; as, "The severity of 
the distress of the son of the king, touched the nation :" but this mode of expres- 
sion is not to be recommended. It would be better to say ; " The severe distress 
of the king's son, touched the nation." 

Note 4. — When of is used before the possessive case of nouns, there is a 
double possessive, the thing possessed not being repeated ; as, " Vital air was a 
discovery of Priestley's." The sense of which is, " Vital air was one of the dis- 
coveries of Priestley." This idiom prevents the repetition of the same word ; but, 
except to prevent ambiguity, it seems to be allowable in those cases only, which 
suppose the existence of a plurality of subjects of the same kind. In the ex- 
pressions, "A soldier of the king's; "A sentiment of ray brother's;" more than 
one soldier and one sentiment, are supposed to belong to the possessor. But in 
the following sentence, this plurality is neither intimated, nor necessarily sup- 
posed ; and, therefore, the double possessive is not used. " The crown of the king 
was stolen." Sometimes, however, unless we throw the sentence into another 
form, this method is absolutely necessary, without regard to plurality ; in order 
to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of property, which is the most im- 
portant use of the relatives expressed by the possessive case ; for the expressions, 
" This picture of my friend," and " This picture of my friend's," suggest very 
different ideas. The latter phrase expresses property in the strictest sense. 

The preposition of does not always denote possession ; it denotes also, consisting 
of or in, concerning, &c. and in these cases, its place cannot be supplied by the 
possessive case ; thus, a crown of gold, cannot be converted into gold's crown; 
nor cloth of loool, into wool's cloth ; nor a cup of water, into water's cup; nor the 
house of Lords, into the Lords' house. 

Note 5. — Nouns govern pronouns as well as noims, in the possessive case ; as, 
" Every tree is known by its fruit ;" " That desk is mine." 

The possessive its is often improperly used for 'tis or it is; as, "/fs my book;" 
instead of" It is my book." 

Note 6. — Participles are often used for nouns, and have the like effect in 
governing nouns in the possessive case ; as, " A courier arrived from Madrid, 
with an account of his Catholic majesty's having agreed to the neutrality." " In 
case of his Catholic majesty's dying without issue." " Averse to the nation's in- 
volving itself in another war." "Who can have no notion of the same person's 
possessing different accomplishments." " What is the reason of this person's dis- 
j missing his servant so hastily ?" "I remember its being recorded a great exploit." 
" Much will depend on the pupil's composing, but more on his reading." It 
would not be accurate to say, " Much will depend on the pupil composins," &c. 

RULE XI. 
Two or more nouns, signifying the same thing, are put, by appo- 
sition, in the same case ; as, "Paul, the Apostle;" "Solomon, the son 
of David, ^ing- of Israel ;" " Cicero, t\\GgxQz.i orator, philosopher, and 
statesman;" "I much esteem his Excellency, George Washington, 

President of tlie United States."' 



By apposition is understood, something added by way of illustration ; or, in 
order more fiilly to define and explain the meaning or sense of the subject. 

Note 1. — To express emphasis more fully, a pronoun is often put in apposition 
to a preceding noim ; as, " Augustus, the Roman emperor, he who succeeded 
Julius Cesar, is differently described by historians." " After this, Jesus went 
down to Capernaum, he and his mother," &c. 

Note 2. — When two or more nominative nouns, are placed together in appo- 
sition, the verb must agree with the first, or most important word ; as, " The 
founders of Rome, a gang of thieves and villains, were a collection from many 
tribes." " The Apostles, a set of ilhterate men, by their preaching destroyed hea- 
then idolatry and superstition." 

Note 3. — Nouns of the singular number, that are in apposition, must ever 
have a singular verb and pronoun to agree with them ; for they denote but one 
individual person or thing. 

Note 4. — In the following sentences, a noun in the plural, stands in apposition 
to two nouns in the singular, joined by the conjunction or. " The terms of our 
law will hardly find words that answer them in the Spanish or Italian, no scanty 
tanguages." 

Note 5. — Nouns are not unfrequently set in apposition to sentences ; as, 
" The Dutch were formerly in possession of the coasting trade and freight of 
almost all trading nations ; they were also the bankers for s3l Europe ; advantages 
by which they have gained immense sums." Here, advantages is in apposition 
to the two first members of the sentence. 

RULE XII. 

When an address is made to a person, the noun or pronoun is put 
in the nominative case independent ; as, " O, house of Israel ;" " O 
king, live for ever ;" " Rabbi, Rabbi ;" " Yes, Sir, I will go ;" 
" Colonel, I am your most obedient ;" " Let me ask you one question. 
Sir Harry ;" " It must be so, Plato, thou reasonest well ;" " O thou 
man of God." 

If the person who makes the address, is affected with some sudden emotion, or 
passion of the mind, he generally makes use of an interjection ; as, " O, genera 
tion o{ vipers!" " O, Sir Harry .'" Sometimes the interjection is omitted; as, 
" Thou traitor ; thou villain; ye simple ones; master, we perish." 

Note 1. — Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first 
person after them; as, " Ah! me;" but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of 
the second person, or third person ; as, " Oh ! thou," &c. 

RULE XIII. 

Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, or the nouns they 
represent, in gender and number ; as, ( " This is the 7nnn ivhom I 
love ;" " That is the vice which I hate ," " The king and the queen 
put on their robes ;" " Esther put on her royal apparel — she obtained 
favour in his sight — then the king said unto her;" "This is the heir; 
come let us kill /m«, and let us seize on his inheritance ;" " A river 
went out of Eden to water the garden, and it was parted." 

The relative is of the same person as the antecedent, and the verb agrees with 
it accordingly ; as, " Thou who lovest wisdom ;" " I who speak from experience." 
Of this rule there are many violations to be met with ; a few of which will be 
sufiicient to put the learner on his guard ; as, " Each of the sexes should keep 
within its particular bounds, and content themselves with the advantages of their 
particular districts ;" better thus, " The sexes should keep within their particu- 
lar bounds," &c. Again, " can any one, on their entrance into the world, be 
fully secure that they shall not be deceived .'" better thus, " on his entrance," 
and " that he shall." Again, " One should not think too favourably of our- 
selves;" should be, "of one's self." " He had one acquaintance which poisoned 
his disciple ;" better thus, " who poisoned." When a person or persons are re- 
ferred to without distinction of gender, the masculine is generally understood ; 
as, " Every one should do his own work." Every relative must have an antece- 
dent expressed or understood ; as, " Who is fatal to others, is fatal to himself;" 
that is, " The mail who is fatal to others." 

This rule implies, not only that, pronouns must agree with tjie nouns for 
which they stand, in gender and number ; but also tliat, relatives must, in like 
manner, agree with their antecedents, whether nouns or pronouns. 

liliom, which, what, and the relative tliat, though in the objective case, are 
always placed before the verb ; as well as the compounds whomever, xohomsocvcr, 
&c. as, " He whom ye seek ;" " Whomsoever you please to appoint ;" " This is 
what, or, the thing which or that, I wanted." 

Note 1. — Personal pronouns, being used immediately to supply the place of 
nouns, should not be expressed in the same simple sentence with tlie nouns 
which they represent. The following sentences are therefore erroneous. " Tlie 
king he is just ;" " I saw her the queen ;" " The men they were there ;" " Many 
words they darken speech ;" " My banks they are furnished with bees." These 
personals are superfluous, as there is not the least occasion for a substitute in the 
same part where tlie principal word is present. The nominative case they in 
the following sentence, is also superfluous ; " Who, instead of going about doing 
good, they are perpetually intent upon mischief" There is an exception to this 
rule, however, in formal writings, oaths, and the like ; as, " /, Richard Roe, 
of B(/ston ;" " Yov, John Doe, of New- York ;" " We, Richard Roe, and John 
Doe, of Philadelphia." 

Note 2. — A pronoun should not be used instead of a noun, when it would 
occasion ambiguity in the meaning of the sentence ; but the noun sliould be re- 
peated. The following sentence is inaccurate ; " We see the beautiful variety 
of colour in the rainbow, and are led to consider the cause of it." Hero the 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



37 



sentence is left ambiguous by the use of the pronoun it, whether the variety, the 
colour, 01 the rainbow itself he the object of consideration. The noun variety 
should have been repeated thus, " and are led to consider the cause of that 
variety." 

Note 3. — When there are two antecedents of different persons to which a 
relative pronoim refers, the relative and verb following, as well as the possessive 
pronoun, may agree in person with either, though usage may sometimes offer a 
preference ; as, " I am the person who love you ;" or, " I am the person who 
loves you." " I am the man who fight for my country ;" or, " I am the man who 
fights for his country." But when one of the antecedents has been preferred, 
that agreement must be preserved throughout the sentence ; as, " I am he who 
counsels and advises yon well ;" not, " lolio counsels and advise you well." 

Note 4. — When tlie relative pronouns are used in asking questions, the noun 
or pronoun containing the answer, must be in the same case as that which con- 
tains the question ; as, " Whose books are these .' They are John's." " Wlio gave 
them to him ? We." " Of whom did you buy them .' Of a bookseller ; him who 
hves at the Bible and Crown." " Whom did you see there ? Both Aim and the 
shopman." The learner wOl readily comprehend this rule, by supplying the 
words which are understood in the answers. Thus, to express the answers at 
large, we should say, " They are John's books." " We gave them to him." " We 
bought them of him who hves," «fec. " We saw both him and the shopman." As 
the relative pronoun, when used interrogatively, refers to the subsequent word 
or phrase containing the answer to the question, that word or phrase may proper- 
ly be termed the subsequent to the interrogative. 

Note 5. — When a relative pronoun is used in the same sentence with two or 
more antecedents, and refers only to one of them, to prevent ambiguity, it should 
be placed as near to that which it is intended to represent, as the Construction of 
the sentence wUl admit. The following sentences are therefore inaccurate. 



side the king cast his eyes ;" would have sounded better, if written, " On which 
side soever," &c. 

Note 10. — The relative pronoun who, is so much appropriated to persons, 
that there is generally harshness in the appUcation of it, except to the proper 
names of persons, or to the general terms m.a7i, woman, &c. A term which implies 
the idea of persons only, and expresses them by some circumstance or epithet, 
does not always authorize the use of this pronoun ; as, " That faction in England 
who most powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions ;" " That faction which," 
would have been better ; and the same remark will serve for the following ex- 
amples : " France, who was in alliance with Sweden ;" " The court who," &c. 
" The cities who aspired at liberty ;" " That party among ug wlw," &c. 

In some cases it may be doubtful whether the pronoun who he properly applied 
or not; as, " The number of substantial inhabitant with whom some cities 
abound." For when a term directly and necessarily implies persons, it may, 
in many cases, claim the personal relative ; as, " None of the company whom 
be most affected, could cure him of the melancholy under which he laboured." 
The word acquaintance may have the same construction. 

We hardly consider little children as persons, because that expression gives 
us the idea of reason and reflection ; and, therefore, the application of the per- 
sonal relative who, in this case, seems to be harsh : " A child who." Better to 
say, " A child that." 

Note 11. — In one case, custom authorizes us to use which, with respect to 
person ; and that is, when we want to distinguish one person of two, or a par- 
ticular person among a number of others. We should then say, " WJiich of the 
two ?" or, " Wliicli of them, is he or she V 

Note 12. — As the pronoun relative has no distinction of number, we some- 
times find an ambiguity in the use of it ; as when we say, " The disciples of 
Christ wlwm we imitate;" we may mean the imitation either of Christ, or of 



", There are ma.ny people in China, whose support is derived almost entirely from his disciples. The accuracy and clearness of the sentence depend very much 

rice." " He is like a beast of prey, wito is void of compassion." They should be, """" **"■ "-""»» o"-^ A^t^y.,^i^,to ,,=.0 r^<•f^.o ^oiot;,™ <,« tv,^t ;<■ moTr ^oo/4;iTr — _ 

" In the empire of China there are many people whose support," &c. and " He 

who is void of compassion, is like a beast of prey." 
Note 6.— The pronoun what should not be used for the conjunction that. 

The following examples are incorrect in this respect. " He would not beheve 

but what I was in fault." " I do not doubt but what he did it for the best." . 
Note 7. — -When two or more pronouns of different persons are connected by 

the conjunction and, the plural pronoun which refers to them, should agree in 

person with the first, in preference to the second or third ; and with the second, 

in preference to the third; as, "I, thou, and he, should govern our passions;" 

" Thou and he should govern your passions." 
Note 8. — The relative is generally the nominative case to the verb, when no 

nominative comes between it and the verb; as, "The master who taught us;" 

" The trees which are planted." But when a nominative comes between the 

relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the verb, or by some other 

word in the sentence on which it immediately depends ; as, " He who preserves 

me, to whom I owe my being, whose I am, and lohom I serve, is eternal." When 

both the antecedent and relative become nominatives, each to different verbs, 
the relative is nominative to the former, and the antecedent to the latter verb ; 
as, " True philosophy, which is the ornament of our nature, consists more in the 
love of our duty and the practice of virtue, than in great talents and extensive 
knowledge." 

A few instances of erroneous construction will illustrate both the branches of 
the eighth Note. The three following refer to the first part. " How can we 
avoid being grateful to those whom, by repeated kind offices, have proved them- 
selves our real friends .'" " These are the men whom you might suppose were the 
authors of the work." " If you were here, you would find three or four whom 
you would say passed their time agreeably." In all these places, who should be 
used instead of whom. The remaining examples refer to the second part of the 
note. " Men of fine talents are not always the persons wlw we should esteem." 
" The persons who you dispute with, are precisely of our opinion." In these 
sentences whom should be used instead of who. 

Note 9. — The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as well as things; 
but after an adjective in the superlative degree, and after the pronominal adjec- 
tive same, it is generally used m preference to who or which; as, " Charles XII. 
king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the world ever saw." 
" Catihne's followers were the most profligate that could be found in any city." 
" He is the same man that we saw before." There are cases wherein we cannot 
conveniently dispense with the relative that as applied to persons : as first, after 
who when used interrogatively ; " Who that has any sense of religion, would have 
argued thus ?" Secondly, when persons make but a part of the antecedent ; 
" The woman and the estate tliat became his portion, were too much for his 
moderation." In neither of these examples could any other relative have been 
used ; but there are some instances in which it can hardly be called proper to 
use that instead of who or whom. Thus, directly after a proper name, as in 
Hume ; " The queen gave orders for taking into custody the duke of Northum- 
berland, who fell on his knees to the earl ofArundel, that arrested him." Who 
would have been much better ; and even in cases where that is as proper as who, 
both never ought to be relatives of the same antecedent in the same sentence 
And, indeed, it is very awkward, to say the least of it, to use both in the same 
sentence, though relating to different antecedents, if all these be names of 
rational beings. " The lords, who made the first report, and tho commons, that 
seemed to vie with their lordships," &<;. 

That, as a relative, cannot take tho preposition or verb immediately before it ; 
as, " The man to whom I gave the book," is a correct expression ; but I cannot 
say, " The man to that I gave the book." " Having defeated whom, he remained 
quiet ." but we cannot, in ^waking of persons, say, " Having defeated tliat, he 
remained quiet." 

The compound pronouns whichsoever, lohatsoever, and the Uke, are elegantly 
divided by the interposition of tho corresponding nouns ; thus, " On whichsoever 



upon the proper and determinate use of the relative, so that it may readily pre- 
sent its antecedent to the mind of the learner or reader, without any obscurity 
or ambiguity. 

What, has several uses. First, it has the sense of that which; as, "I have 
heard what has been "alleged." Secondly, what stands for any indefinite idea ; as, 
" He cares not what he says or does." Thirdly, a principal use of what is to ask 
questions ; as, " What wiU be the consequence of the revolution in France .-"' 
Fourthly, what, as well as which and that, are frequently used as pronominal 
adjectives ; as, " I know not what impressions time may have made upon your 
person." The word whose is not so generally restricted to persons, but that good 
writers, even in prose, use it when speaking of things. The construction is not, 
however, generally pleasing, as we may see in the following instances; "Pleasure, 
whose nature," &c. " Call every production whose parts, and whose natures," &c. 
Note 13. — The neuter pronoun it, is sometimes omitted and understood ; 
thus, we say, " As appears, as follows;" for " As it appears, as it follows ;" and 
" May be ;" for " It may be." This neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to 
the Enghsh language, is frequently joined in explanatory sentences, with a noun 
or pronoun of the masculine or feminine gender; as, "It was I;" "It was the 
man or woman that did it." 

RULE XIV. 

Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case, and, 
generally, verbs of the like moods and tenses ; as, " He loves you 
and me;" " The master taught her and me to write ;" " He and she 
were school-fellows ;" " Candour is to he approved and practised ;" 
" If thou sincerely desire, and earnestly pursue virtue, she icill as- 
suredly he found by thee, and prove a rich reward." 

Note 1. — Two or more nouns, or pronoims, in the singular number, connect- 
ed by the conjunction and, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing 
with them in the plural number ; as, " Socrates and Plato were wise ; they were 
the most eminent philosophers of Greece;" " Thou and he toere true to your 
country." 

Note 2. — Two or more nouns, or pronouns, in the singular number, connect- 
ed by or, or nor, must have a verb, noun, and pronoun agreeing with them in 
the singular number , as, " Peter or John was at the exchange yesterday ; but 
neither Peter nor John is there to-day." 

Note 3. — When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different per- 
sons are connected by or or nor, the verb must agree, in person, with that which 
is placed next to it ; as, " I or thou art to blame ;" " Thou or I am in fault ;" 
" I, or thou, or he, is the author of it ;" " George or I am the person." But it 
would be better to say ; " Either / am to blame, or thou art," &c. 

Note 4. — When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun, 
and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and pronoun ; 
as, " Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him ;" " I or they were offend- 
ed by it." But ill tliis case, the plural noun or pronoun, when it can conveniently 
bo done, should be placed next to the verb. 

Note 5. — Conjunctions sometimes connect different moods and tenses of 
verbs. But in these instances the nominative must generally be repeated ; 
which is not necessary, though it may be done, under the construction to which 
tho fourteenth rule refers. We may say, " He lives temperately, and he should 
live temperately ;" "He may return, but he wiU not continue ;" " She was proud, 
though she is now humble." 

When, in the progress of a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to the nega- 
tive form, or from the negative to the affirmative, the subject or nominative is 
generally repeated ; as, " He is rich, but he is not respectable." 

Note 6. — Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the subjunctive 
mood after them. It is a general rule that. When something contingent or doubt- 
ful is implied, tho subjunctive ought to be used ; as, " Jff I were to write, he 
■would not regard it ;" " He will not be pardoned, unless he repent." But when 



ritttai 



S8 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



peither contingence nor .doubt b knplied, the verb should be in the indicative, 
whatever conjunctions may attend it ; as, " Though he is poor, he is contented ;" 
flot, " Though he be poor," &c. 

The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, &c. generally require the 
subjunctive mood after them ; as, " If thou be afflicted, repine not ;" " Thoug-h 
he slay me, yet will I trust in him ;" " He cannot be clean, unless he wash him- 
self)" " No power except it were given him from above ;" " Whether it were I or 
they, so we preach." But even these conjunctions, when the sentence does not 
imply doubt, admit of the indicative ; as, " Jf he allows the excellence of virtue, 
be does, not regard her precepts." 

It may not be superfluous to observe, that the auxiliaries of the potential 
mood, when applied to the subjunctive, do not change the termination of the 
second person singular. We properly say, " If thou mayst or canst go ;" 
" Though thou mightst live ;" " Unless thou couldst read ;" " If thou wovldst 
learn ;" and not, " If thou may or can go." 

Note 7. — After the comparatives than and as, there may be, and generally is, 
an elUpsis of the verb, noun, or other words ; as, " She is taller than I ;" " He 
loves his money more than his honour ;" " Paris is not so large as London ;" 
" This is mdre afflictive than was expected ;" that is, " Taller than I am," &c. 

Note 8. — Some conjunctions have corresponding conjunctions belonging to 
them, either expressed or vmderstood; as, 1st, Though, yet, nevertheless ; aa, 
" Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor ;" " Though powerful, 
he was meek." 2d, Whether — or ; as, " Whether he will go or not, I cannot 
tell." 3d, Either — or ; as, " I will either send it, or bring it myself." - 4th, Nei- 
ther — nor ; as, " Xcither he nor I, am able to compass it." 5th, Jls — as; express- 
ing a comparison of equality ; as, " She is as amiable as her sister, and as much 
respected." 6th, As — so ; expressing a comparison of equality ; thus, " As the 
^■tars, so shall thy seed be." 7th, As — so ; expressing a comparison of quality; 
as " As the one dieth, so dieth the other ;" " As he roads, they read." 8th, 

So fo'.s ; with a verb expressing a comparison of quality ; as, " To see thy glory, 

so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary." 9tli, So — as ; with a negative and an 
adjective expressing a comparison of- quantity; as, " Pompey was not so great 
a general as Cesar, nor so great a man." 10th, So — that ; expressing a conse- 
quence ; as, " He was so fatigued, tliat he could scarcely move." 
I The conjunctions or and nor may often be used with nearly equal propriety. 
"The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous, nor decisive, assented 
to the measure." In this sentence, or would perhaps have been better ; but, in 
general, nor seems to repeat the negation in the former part of the sentence, 
and therefore gives more emphasis to the expression. 

The conjunctions lest and that, following a verb of the imperative mood, re- 
quire the subjunctive mood after them ; as, " Love not sleep, lest thou come to 
poverty ;" " Take heed tliat thou speak not to Jacob." There seems to be an 
irregularity in the construction of the following sentence, which should always 
be avoided in similar cases. " If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them 
is gone astray," &c. It should be, " and one of them be gone astray," &c. 

Note 9. — Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in pairs. 
The following are examples of this impropriety. " The relations are so uncer- 
tain, as that they require a great deal of examination." It should be, " tliat they 
require," &c. " There was no man so sanguine who did not apprehend some ill 
consequences." It ought to be, " so sanguine as not to apprehend," &c. or, 
" no man, how sanguine soever, who did not," &c. " To trust in him, is no 
more hut to acknowledge his power."' " This is no other but the gate of para- 
dise." In both these instances, but should be than. "We should sufficiently 
weigh the objects of our hopes ; whether th^ be such as we may reasonably 
expect from them what they propose," &c. It ought to be, " that we may rea- 
sonably," &c. " The duke had not behaved with that propriety as he ought to 
have done ;" " with which he ought." " In the order as they lie in his preface ;" 
it should be, " in order as they he ;" or, " in the order in which they lie." " Such 
sharp replies that cost him his life ;" "as cost him his hfe." "If he were truly 
timt scarecrow, as he is now commonly painted ;" " such a scarecrow," &c. " I 
wish I could do that justice to his memory to oblige the painters ;" &c. " do 
such justice as to oblige, ' &c. 

RULE XV. 

A noun or pronoun joined with a participle, and standing indepen- 
dent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case independent ; 
as, " The general being slain the army was routed ;" " Affairs being 
thus circumstanced, it was advisable not to proceed in the business ;" 
' The parliament having justified the king's conduct, the mob dis- 
persed ;" " Jiesus had conveyed himself away, z. multitude being in 
that place." 

NoTK 1. — Nouns in the nominative case independent, have no connexion, 
cither by government or agreement, with any other part of speech in the sen- 
tence in which tlioy are used. But participles, connected with independent 
nouns, have an agreement with the nouns ; and it is frequently the case, that 
participles in this connexion, may govern an objective case after them ; as, 
'' The sun dispersing the clouds, it began to grow warm." 

RULE XVI. 

A verb in the infinitive mood, may be governed by a verb, noun, 
adjective, or participle ; as, " He loves to cherish the social virtues ;" 
" The next thing natural for the tnind to do;" " She is icorthy to be 
loved;" " Endeavouring to persuade." 

Note 1. — Than and as sometimes appear to govern the infinitive mood ; as, 
" Notliing makes a man suspect much, more than to know little ;" " An object 
i»o high as to bo invisible." 



Note 2. — The Lnfinitive nlood has, in its sense and use, a near affinity to a 
noun. It is much emploj'ed to introduce sentences which are the nominatives 
to verbs, as well as the objects following them; as," To play is pleasant;" 
" Boys love to play." In the first sentence, to play is the nominative case : in 
the second, it is the objective. 

Note 3. — When several verbs of the infinitive mood are connected by a con- 
junction, the preposition to is, generally, placed before the first verb only, and un- 
derstood to the rest ; as, " It is our duty to fear God and keep his commandments." 

Note 4. — ^As the infinitive mood has often the nature of a noun, it should not 
be used when a noun, pronoun, or participle would be more elegant and ex- 
pressive ; as, " He doubted them to be sincere ;" it should be, " He doubted 
their sincerity." 

Note 5. — The infinitive mood should never be used with regard to time, as 
the preposition to is prefixed only to verbs in the present and perfect tenses. 

RULE XVII. ■ 

A verb in the infinitive mood absolute, stands independent of the 
remaining part of the sentence ; as, " To confess the truth, I was in 
fault;" " To proceed in my story, he went to Boston." 

To confess, to proceed, are verbs in the infinitive mood, and they are used in an 
absolute sense ; that is, they are not governed by any preceding verb, noun, or 
adjective ; neither are they used as doing the office of nominative cases to any 
subsequent verbs. 

Note 1. — A verb absolute, in the infinitive mood, may govern an objective 
word, either expressed, or understood ; as, " To confess the truth." 

Note 2. — The conjunction /or, is inelegantly used before verbs in the infini- 
tive mood ; as, " He came for to study Latin ;" " They went for to hear him 
preach ;" " All their works they io for to be seen of men." 

Note 3. — The infinitive mood of active verbs, is often used in a neuter signi- 
fication ; as, " They are to blame for so doing ;" " I left my books to bind." Such 
infinitives may he expressed, perhaps, with greater propriety by the infinitive 
of the passive verbs ; as " They are to be blamed for so doing ;" "I left my books 
to be hound." 

RULE XVIII. 

The verbs which follow bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, 
&c. are used in the infinitive mood without having the sign to prefixed 
to them; as, " He bids me come;" " I dare engage;" " We felt the 
earth tremble ;" "We heard him relate the story ;" "Let me see the 
man;" "We cannot make them understand;" "He need not be 
anxious ;" " I saw him do it." In the above sentences it would be 
superfluous and improper to add to, the sign of the infinitive, to those 
verbs which are in Italics. Thus, "I saw him to do it." 

Note 1. — In the uses of dare and need, there are some peculiarities which 
deserve remark. 

When dare signifies to defy or challenge, it is a transitive verb, and is followed by 
a verb in the infinitive mood with the usual prefix ; as, " He dares me to enter 
the list." But when it is intransitive^ denoting to have courage, it is followed by 
a verb in the infinitive mood without to ; as, " I dare engage ;" and in popular 
practice it is used in the thud person, without the personal termination. Thus, 
instead of saying, " He dares not do it ;" we generally say," He dare not do it." 
The past and future tenses are generally foflowed by the infinitive mood with 
the usual prefix ; as, '•' You have dared to throw more than a suspicion upon 
mine ;" " He will not dare to attack his adversary." In the hke manner, need, 
when an active verb, is regular in its inflections ; as, " A man needs more pru- 
dence." But when intransitive, it drops the personal terminations in the present 
tense, and is followed by a verb without the prefix to; as, " Nobody need be 
afraid that he will not have scope enough ;" " The heeder 7ic(:d be under no 
fear;" " She need dig no more ;'* "A man need not be uneasy on these groimds ;'" 
" He need not urge to this honourable court." 

In the use of this verb, there is another irregularity, which is peculiar, the 
verb being without a nominative, expressed or implied. Thus we say," Where- 
of there needs no account ;" " There is no evidence of the fact, and there needs 
none." This is an established iise of need. The infinitive mood following the 
verb see (signifying to take care of) should have the sign to expressed ; as, " I 
will see to have it done." 

Note 2. — A verb in the Lnfinitive mood, should always be written m the 
present tense, when it expresses an action or event contemporary with its govern- 
ing verb, or subsequent to it ; as, '• The last week I intended to write a letter ;" 
"f found him much better than I expected to find him;" " History painters 
would have found it difficult to invent such a species of being." But when it 
denotes action or being antecedent to the governing verb, it must be in the per- 
fect tense ; as, " It would have aflrorded me great pleasure, to hare been the mes- 
senger of such intelligence ;" " A free pardon was granted to the son, who was 
known to have offered indignities to the body of Varus." A common mistake in 
the use of the infinitive mood is, to use the perfect tense, in cases where the 
present should Ix! employed; as, " Tlie last vveek, I intended to have written;" 
" I found him much better than I expected to have found him." These, and 
many other like phrases, are iinproperly, used in the perfect tense. 

Note 3. — When the verb ought is used in the present tense, the present tense 
of the infinitive mood ought to be used ; as, " Ha ouglit to mhmit." But when 
it is used in the imperfect tense, the perfect tense oltjie imlnitive mood should 
follow it ; as, " He ought to have done it." 

As the verb ought has no vatiation of ending to distinguish the present and 
imperfect tenses, the two tenses of the infinitive mood, one of which always fol- 
lows it, are the only means of distinguishing one from the other. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



39 



DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING. 



AS we have finished the explanation of the different parts of speech, and the 
mles for forming them into sentences, it is now proper to give some examples of 
the manner in which learners shovild be exercised, in order to prove their know- 
ledge, and to render it familiar to them. This is called parsing. 

The Rules of Syntax have been constructed so as to embrace all the varieties 
that generally occur in parsing ; but as our language is acknowledged to be ex- 
ceedmgly anomalous, the Notes annexed to the Rules are so framed as to include 
most of the irregularities that occur in composition. Hence, in parsing abstruse 
sentences, it may be necessary to refer to the Notes. 

SPECniENS OF SYNTACTICAL PARSING, 

" Vice produces misery." 

Vice is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular number, and 
nominative case to " produces," according to rule i. which says ; (here repeat 
the rule.) Produces is an active regular verb, indicative mood, present tense, 
third person singular, and agrees with its nominative " vice," agreeably to 
KULE II. Misery is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular num- 
ber, objective case, and governed by '-produces," according to rule vi. 

" They found him transgressing the laws." 

They is a personal pronoun, third person, plural number, and nominative case 
to *' found," according to rule i. Found is an active irregular verb, indica- 
tive mood, imperfect tense, third person plural, agreeing with its nominative 
" they," according to rule ii. Him is a personal pronoun, masculine gender, 
third person, singular number, objective case, and governed by " found," agree- 
ably to RULE VI. Transgressing is a present participle, and relates to " him," 
according to rule iv. The is the definite article, and belongs to " la*s," ac- 
cording to RULE III. Laws is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, 
plural number, objective case, and governed by " transgressing," according to 

RULE VII. 

" Goodness will be rewarded." 

Goodness is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular number, 
and nominative case to " will be rewarded," according to rule i. Will be re- 
warded is a passive regular verb, indicatif e mood, first future tense, third person 
singular, and agrees with its nominative " goodness," agreeably to rule ii. 

" Time flies, O how swiftly !" 

Time is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular number, and 
nominative case to " flies," according to rule i. Flies is a neuter irregular 
verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with its 
nominative " time," agreeably to rule ii. O is an interjection. How is an 
adverb, and qualifies " swiftly," according to rdljs v. Swiftly is an adverb, and 
qualifies " flies," according to rule v. 

" We should be kind to them, who are unkiiid to us." 

IFe is a personal pronoun, first person, plural number, and nominative case to 
" shoi^d be," according to rule i. Shmtld be is a neuter irregular verb, poten- 
tial mood, imperfect tense, first person plural, agreeing with its nominative " we," 
agreeably to rule ii. KiTul is an adjective, and belongs to " we," accosiing 
to rule III. To is a. preposition. Them is a personal pronoun, third person, 
plural number, objective case, and governed by " to," agreeably to rule viii. 
IVJw is a relative pronoun, and agrees with its antecedent " them," in the third 
person plural, agreeably to rule siii. It is the nominative case to " are," 
according to rule i. ^re is a neuter irregular verb, indicative mood, present 
tense, third person plural, and agrees with its nominative " who," according to 
ncLE II. Un/cind is an atljective, in the positive degree, and relates to " who," 
according to RULE III. 2'o is a preposition, i/s is a personal pronoun, first per- 
son, plural number, . objective case, and governed by '■ to," agreeably to 

RULE VIII. 

" This bounty has relieved you and me, and has gratified the donor." 

This is a pronominal adjective, used as an adjective, and' belongs to " bounty," 
according to rule iii. Bounty is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, 
singular number, and nominative case to " has relieved," according to rule i. 
Has relieved is an active regular verb, indicative mood, perfect tense, third per- 
son singular, agreeing with its nominative "bounty," according to rule ii. 
You is a personal pronoun, second person, plural number, objective case, and 
j^overned by " has relieved," according to rule vi. Jl7id is a conjunction. Me 
\g a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, objective case, connected to 
" you" by " and," according to rule xiv. And is a conjunction. Has gratified 
is an active regular verb, indicative mood, perfect tense, third person singular, 
' connected to " has relieved" by " and," agreeably to rule XTv. The is the de- 
finite article, and belongs to " donor," according to edlk hi. Donor is a common 
nonn, ihird person, singular number, objective case, and governed by " gratified," 
aocording to rulk vi. 

" Ho will not be pardonnd, unless he repent." 
Ht is a personal pronoun, masculino gender, third person, singular number, 
and nonunative caijo to "will be pardoned," according to rule i. IViU be par- 
dmed is a passive regular verb, indicative mood, first future tense, third person 
ringular, agreein/j with its nominative " ho," agreeably to rule u. Not is an 
adverb, and qualifies " will be pardoned," according to role v. Unless is a 



conjunction. Jfe is a jwrsonal pronoun, masculine gender, third person, Sirigftlar 
number, and nominative case to " repent," according to rule i. Repent is a 
neuter regular verb, subjunctive mood, present tense, third person singular, 
agreeing with its nominative " he," agreeably to rule ii. 

" The emperor, Marcus Aurelius, was a wise and virtuous prince." 

The is the definite article, and belongs to " emperor," according to rule ni. 
Emperor is a common noun, masculine gender, third person, singular number, 
and nominative case to " was," according to rule i. Marcus Aurelius is a 
proper noun, masculine gender, third person, singular number, nominative case, 
and put in apposition with " emperor," agreeably to rule si. Was is a neuter 
irregular verb, indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person singular, and 
agrees with its nominative " emperor," according to rule ii. A is thfe^ indefi- 
nite article, relating to " prince," according to rule hi. Wise is an ad^tive, 
in the positive degree, and belongs to " prince," according to rule hi. And 
is a conjunction. Virtuous is an adjective, in the positive degree, and belongs 
to '• prince," according to rule ih. Prince is a common noun, masculine 
gender, third person, singular number, nominative case, after the neutei' Verb 
" was," according to rule ix. 

" To confess the truth, General, I was in fault." 

To confess is an active regular verb, infinitive mood, present tense, and stands 
independent, agreeably to rule xvii. The is the definite article, and belongs to 
" truth," according to rule m. TrtUh is a common noun, neuter gender^ 
third person, singular number, objective case, and governed by " To confess," 
agreeably to rule vi. General is a common noun, masculine gender, second 
person, singular number, and in the nominative case independent, according to 
RULE XII. / is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, nominative casfe 
to " was," agreeably to rule i. Was is a neuter irregular verb, indicative mood, 
imperfect tense, first person singular, agreeing with Its nominative " I," accori- 
ing to RULE II. In is a preposition, showing the relation between " was," and 
" fault." Fault is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singsular num- 
ber, objective case, and governed by " in," according to rule viii. 

" Good works being neglected, devotion is false." 
Good is an adjective, in the positive state, and belongs to " works," according 
to RULE IH. Works is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, plural num- 
ber, and nominative case independent, according to rule xv. Being neglected, 
is a compound participle, relating to "works," according to rule iv. De- 
votion is a common noun, third person, singular number, and nominative case to 
" is," according to rule i. Is is a neuter irregular verb, indicative mood, pre- 
sent tense, third person singular, and agrees with its nominative " devotion," 
agreeably to rule ii. False is an adjectiVe, and belongs to " devotion," accord- 
ing to rule III. 

" Strive to improve." 

Strive is a neuter irregular verb, imperative mood, present tense, second per- 
son singular, and agrees with its nominative " thou," imderstood, agreeably to 
RULE 11. To improve, is a neuter regular verb, infinitive mood, present tense, 
and governed by '•' strive,' according to rule xvi. 

" Let me proceed." 

Let is an active irregular verb, imperative mood, present tense, second per- 
son singular, and agrees with its nominative " thou," understood, according to 
RULE II. Me is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, objective 
case, and governed by "lot," according to rule vi. Proceed is a neuter regular 
verb, infinitive mood, without having the sign to prefixed, because it follows " let," 
according to RULE xvm ; present tense, and governed by " me," according to 

RULE XVI. 

" Peace and joy are virtue's reward." 

Peace is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular number, and 
one of the nominatives to " are," according to rule i. And is a copulative con' 
junction. Joy is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular number, 
connected with " peace" by " and," according to rule .\iv. Are is a neuter ir- 
regular verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person plural, agreeing with 
its nominative case "peace and joy," agreeably to Note 1, under rule xiv. 
Virtue's is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular number, pos- 
sessive case, and governed by " reward," according to rule x. Reward is a 
common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular number, and nominative 
case after " are," agreeably to rule ix. 

" Wisdom or folly governs us." 

Wisdom is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular number, and 
nominative case to " govenls," according to rule i. Or is a disjunctive con- 
junction. Folly is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular num- 
ber, and nominative case to "governs," according to Note 2, under rule xiv. 
Governs is an active regular verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person 
singular, and agrees with its nominative " wisdom" or " folly," according to 
RULE II. Us is a personal pronoun, first person, plural number, objiJCtive case, 
and governed by " governs," according to rule vi. 

" We are not unemployed." ' 

Wc is a personal pronouo, first person, plural number, anrf nominative cafle 
to " are," according to kui.e i. Are is a neuter irroguUr verb, indicative 
mood, present tense, first person plural, agreeing with its nominative " we,'| 
according to kdle ii. Not is an adverb of negation, aoi qualifies "are," ac- 



40 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



cording to bule t. Unemployed is an adjective, &nd belongs to " we/' accord- 
ing to RVLE III. 

" Who preserves us ?" 
Who is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, and nominative case to 
" preserves," accordmg to rcle i. The word to which it relates, (its subse- 
quent,) is the noun or pronoun containing the answer to the question, agreeably 
to Note 4, under rule xiii. Preserves is an active regular verb, indicative 
mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative " who," 
agreeably to rule ii. Us is a personal pronoun, first person, plural number, 
objective case, and governed by " preserves," according to rule vi. 

" Whose house is that ? My brother's and mine. Who inhabit it ? We." 
Whose is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, and relates to the fol- 
lowing words, " brother's" and " mine," agreeably to Note 4, imder rdle xm. 
'It is in the possessive case, governed by " house," acoording to rule x. House 
is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular number, and nomina- 
tive case to " is," according to rule i. Is is a neuter irregular verb, indicative 
mood, present tense, tliird person singular, and agrees with its nominative 
" house," agreeably to rule ii. That is a pronominal adjective, used as a 
pronoun, third person,' singular munber, and nominative case after " is," ac- 
cording to RULE IX. My is a personal' pronoun, first person, singular number, 
possessive case, governed by " brother's," according to rule x. Brother's is a 
common noun, masculine gender, third person, singular number, possessive case, 
governed by " house," understood, according to rule x. £nd is a conjunction. 
Mine is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, connected by " and" 
to " brother's," in the same case, agreeably to rule xiv. (It house were express- 
ed, the pronoun mine would be changed into my.) Who is a relative pronoun of 
the interrogative kind, third person, plural number, nominative case, and re- 
lates to " we" following, according to Note 4, under rule xiii. Inhabit is an 
active regular verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person plural, and 
agrees with its nominative "who," according to rule ii. /f is a personal pro- 
noun, neuter gender, third person, singular number, objective case, and govern- 
ed by " inhabit," according to rule vi. We is a personal pronoun, first person, 
plural number, and nominative case to the verb " inhabit," understood, according 
to RULE I. ( We inhabit it.) 

" To err is human." 
To err, is a verb in the infinitive mood, and the nominative case to " is," 
according to Note 1, under rule i. Is is a neuter irregular verb, indicative 
jnood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative "to 
err," according to rule ii. Human is an adjective, and belongs to " to err," 
according to Note 5, under rule hi. 

"Living expensively and luxuriously, destroys health. By living frugally 
and temperately, health is preserved." 

Living expensively and luxuriously, is the nominative case to the verb " de- 
stroys." Living frugally and temperately, is the objective case, governed by the 
preposition " by." 



REMARKS ON THE ELLIPSIS. 

Ellipsis, when ajjplied to grammar, is the elegant omission of some one part, 
or parts of speech, in a sentence. 

The part of speech that is omitted, must be added in idea, either to complete 
the sense, or to parse the sentence grammatically. 

To shun the unpleasant repetition of words, and to render the mode of ex- 
pression as elegant as possible, is the main design of the ellipsis. 

That this figure may be used with elegance, the speaker, or writer, should be 
careful to shun all ambiguity of expression. Whenever the meaning is obscured, 
the figure is improperly used. 

Simple sentences are seldom elliptical : but compound sentences are very often 
affected with this figure. 

To produce some examples of elliptical sentences, is the best method to im- 
press the understanding with the propriety, or impropriety, of using the ellipsis. 

Ellipsis of the Article. 

" The men, women, and children j together with the cattle, houses, barns, and 
fields, were all destroyed." 

The repetition of the article the, before each noun, in this sentence, is 
needless. 

When any peculiar emphasis is to be placed upon the nouns, then the repeti- 
tion of the article the is both necessary and elegant. 

" But of that day, and that hour, knoweth no man ; no, not the angels, which 
are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father." 

Ellipsis of the Noun. 

" A most kind, tender, and faithful husband." " A most beautiful, amiable, 
prudent, atd virtuous loife." 

Sentences that are very empliatical, will not admit the ellipsis. 

" Christ, th« power of God, and the wisdom of God." Christ, the power and 
wisdom of God is not so emphatical. 



" He teaches his scholars 



J' He went to St. Stephen's." " He is dean of St. Paul's." " Whose book is 
this?" " It is Peter's." This is good composition ; and more elegant, than if the 
nouns, omitted by the elUpsis, were supplied. And, yet, in parsing, we must say 
St. Stephen's Chapel ; St. Paul's Church ; It is Peter's book. 

Ellipsis of the Adjective. 
" Washington was a great scholar, statesman, and general." 
In sentences of this kind, care should be taken, that the adjectives omitted, he 
as proper to (qualify the latter, as the former noun. 

The eUipsis of adjectives should never be applied to nouns of different numbers. 

Ellipsis of the Prorwun. 
" My house and tenements to Ned." " My book, pen, ink, and paper." " My 
father aft^ mother, sisters and brothers." 

If the expressions demand a particular emphasis, we must dispense with the 
figure. " O, send out thy light and thy truth." " "The Lord is my hght and my 
salvation." 

Ellipsis of the Verb. 

" And knowest not tliat thou art wretched, and jniserable, and poor, and blind, 
and naked." 

To omit verbs, in similar instances, is very proper. In the preceding senten- 
ces, the conjunction that, the pronoun thou, and the verb art, are omitted in foHT 
difierent places ; and yet there is no obscurity of sense. 

When several verbs, in succession, are used in the infinitive mood, elegance 
requires that to, the sign of the infinitive mood, should be omitted before all, but 
the first. 

" To love and' fear God is man's duty.'' 

, Ellipsis of the Mverb. 
" He walks, speaks, and behaves, very genteelly." 
to spell, read, and write, correctly." 

Ellipsis of the Conjunction. 

" God is to be loved for his truth, goodness, mercy, and grace." 

In all emphatical expressions, the conjunction ought to be used. 

" For I am persuaded, that neither death, Tior life, nor angels, nor principali- 
ties, nor powers, nor things present, Twr things to come, nor height, nor depth, 
nor any other creature, shall be able to separate us from the love of God." 

Corresponding conjunctions should -hever be omitted : A few examples will 
evince the iinpropriety of their omission. 

So — as. Providence is not so large as Boston. Providence is not rnore large 
so Boston. 

As — as. He is as learned a man as you. He is so learned a man os yon. 

Whether — or. Whether it were you, or they, th^t played. Whetlier it were 
you, nor they, that played. 

Neither — nor. Neither this man, nor his father. Neither this man, or his father. 

Either — or. Choose either this, or that. Choose either this, and that. 

Though — yet. n.ough he is not polite, yet he is learned and virtuous. 
Though he is not polite, he is learned and virtuous. 

So — that. It is so plain, that you must know it. It is so plain, you must know it. 

Ellipsis of the Preposition. 

" To finish his education, he made a tour through England, France, Italy, 
Germany, and Holland." 

The repetition of the preposition througli, before all these nouns, would be in- 
elegant : And where neither sense nor perspicuity demands the use of a prepo- 
sition, it should be avoided. 

Ellipsis of the Interjection. 
" Thomas answered and said, my Lord and my God. Rabbi good master. 
Yes, Sir. No, Madam." 

The following quotations are very elliptical. " Let us swallow them up alive 
as the grave, and whole as those that go down into the pit." Supplied : Let thou 
us swallow them up alive as the grave swalloweth them up alive, and let thou us 
swallow them up whole, as those are stoallowed up whole, that go down into the pit- 
That the above verse cannot be parsed without supplying, in idea, the words 
that are omitted, by the ellipsis, is evident to all acquainted with the rules of 
Syntax. 

" That we may enjoy ourselves, let us be temperate, chaste, moderate ; that 
we may enjoy one another, let us be benevolent, humane, charitable ; that we 
may enjoy God, let us be pious, devout, and holy; detesting the vices, and de- 
spising the vanities of this world." 

That we may enjoy ourselves, let us be temperate, </««< wemay enjoy ourselves, 
let us be chaste, and that toe may enjoy ourselves, let us be moderate ; that we may 
enjoy one another, let us be benevolent, that we may enjoy one another, let us be 
humane, and that we may enjoy one another, let us be charitable ; that we may 
enjoy God, let us be pious, thut xce may enjoy God, let us be devout, and that wc 
may enjoy God, let us be holy ; detesting the vices, and despising the vanities of 
this world. 

That the use of the grammatical ellipsis, under certain circumstances, ia 
necessary as well as elegant, appears by this antithesis. The repetition of the 
words in Italic, obscures, in a measure, the sense ; lessens the majesty of ex- 
pression ; and greatly fatigues the mind. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



ir| 



PROSODY. 



PEOSODY consists of two parts; the former teaches the true pronunciation 
of words, comprising Accent, Quantity, Emphasis, Pause, anH Tone; and the 
latter, the laws of Versification, 

Accent. — Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain 
letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distin- 
guished from them ; as, in the word //resume, the stress of the voice must be on 
the letter u, and the second syllable, swne, which takes the accent;' 

QiiarUity. — The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pro- 
nouncing it. It is considered as long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel ; which occasions 
it to be slowly joined, in pronunciation, to the following letter ; as, " Fall, bale, 
mood, house, feature." 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant ; which occasions the 
vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter ; as, " Snt, bonnet, hfmger." 

A long syllable requires double the time of a short one in pronouncing it : 
Thus, " Mate" and " Note" should be pronoimced as slowly again, as " M5t" 
and " Not." 

Emphasis. — By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by 
which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay particular 
stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the 
emphatic words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as 
by a greater stress. 

Pauses. — Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the 
voice, during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space of time. 

Tones. — Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses ; consisting in the 
modulation of the voice, and in the notes or variations of sound which we 
employ in the expression of our sentiments. 

Versification. — Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and va- 
riety of syllables, according to certain laws. (See Appendix.) 

Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one verse, to the last sound 
of another. 



JPUNCTUATION. 

PoNCTUATiON is the art of dividing written composition into sentences and 
parts of sentences by points or stops, in order to mark the different pauses 
which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require. 

In order to determine the proper application of the points, it is necessary to 
understand what is meant by an adjunct or imperfect phrase, a simple semtence, 
and a compound sentence. 

An adjunct or imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a 
proposition ; as, " Therefore, desirous of praise ;" "In the pursuit of riches." 

A simple sentence contains one subject or nomiijative case, and one finite 
verb,* expressed or understood ; as, " Exercise promotes health." 

A compound sentence contains more than one subject and one finite verb, ex- 
pressed or implied ; as, " Examine well the counsel that favours your desires." 

The subject and verb may both be attended with adjuncts, expressing the 
object, cause, end, time, place, manner, and the like. 

A sentence is rendered compound, not only by means of a plurality of subjects 
and verbs, but also of adjuncts. 

If two or more adjuncts are connected v^rith the verb in the same manner, by 
the same preposition, conjunction, &c. the sentence is compound, and may be 
resolved into two or more simple ones. But if the adjuncts are connected with 
the verb in a different manner, the sentence is simple ; as, " They have sacri- 
ficed their health and fortune at the shnne of vanity, pride, and extravagance ;" 
" Elegance of taste has a connexion with many virtues of the most amiable kind." 

In the former example, several of the adjuncts being connected with the verb 
in the same manner, the sentence is compound ; in the latter, all the adjuncts 
being connected with the verb in a different manner, the sentence is simple. 

RULE I. 

The members of a simple sentence must not be separated by a comma ; as, 
" Adversity borrows its sliarpest sting from our impatience." 

EXCEPTIONS. ' 

1. An adjunct of importance not standing in its natural order ; especially an 
adjunct of the verb, if it come before the subject, between the subject and verb, 
or between the verb and its object, may oflen be separated by a comma on both 
sides ; as, " Nor, even on this affecting event, should I presume thus to deviate," 

* A verb not in the infinitive mood. 



&c. Within the last Meen years, that Honourable Body has lost a large pro- 
portion of Its members." " That Honourable Body, within the last fifteen years, 
has lost,' «&c. or, " That Honourable Body has lost, within the last fifteen years, 
a large proportion," &c. •' ' 

2. The nominative case independent, when an address is made, and nouns.in 
apposition, when attended with adjuncts, must be separated by commas, as, " Do, 
Trim, said my uncle Toby." " Death, thou king of terrors, choose a prime 
mimster." 

3. The nominative case independent, and infinitive mood absolute, with their 
adjuncts ; an adjective or participle with words depending on them ; and, gene- 
rally, any imperfect phrase which may be resolved into a simple sentence, must 
be separated by a comma ; as, " His father dying, he succeeded to the estate." 
" To confess the truth, I was in fault." « Who, having finished the usual aca- 
demic course, have returned to us again, to prosecute your professional studies." 

4. Where the verb of a simple sentence is understood, a comma may, gene- 
rally, be inserted ; as, " From law, arises security ; from security, curiosity • 
from curiosity, knowledge." j j > 

RUL£ II. 

A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones, and separated by 
commas ; as, " The decay, the waste, and the dissolution of a plant, may affect 
our spirits, and suggest a train of serious reflections." 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. Two words of the same kind, immediately connected by a conjunction, 
though they may render the sentence a compound one, must not be separated. 
But, if there be more than two, they must all be separated, unless connected in 
pairs, in which case the pairs only must be separated ; as, " Some men sin de- 
hberately and presumptuously." « Deaths of parents, friends, and companions, 
are doubtless intended for our improvement." " There is a natural difference 
between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly." 

2. In comparative sentences, where the members are short, the comma is bet- 
ter omitted ; as, " Wisdom -is better than riches." " No preacher is so success- 
ful as time." 

3. Sentences connected by what cannot be separated ; and where the relative 
is understood, the comma is generally omitted ; as, " Eat what is set before you." 
" With sorrow may they mingle gratitude for the wise counsel he has given them, 
and for the excellent example he has set before them for imitation." " Value 
duly the opportunities you enjoy." 

4. When a simple sentence stands as the object of a preceding verb, and its 
■^erb may be changed mto the infinitive mood, the comma may be omitted ; as, 
" When I supposed he was at rest ;" changed, " when I supposed him to be at 
rest." 



When a longer pause than a comma is required, and yet the sense is incom- 
plete, a semicolon may be used ; as, " The wise man is happy, when he gains his 
own approbation ; the fool, when he gains the applause of those about him." 

RULE IV. 

The colon is- used when the sense of the division of a period is complete, so as 
to admit of a full point, but something is added by way of illustration ; as, " A 
brute arrives at a point of perfection that he can never pass : in a few years lie 
has all the endowments li&^is capable of; and were he to live ton thousand 
more, would be the same thing he is at present." 

Note. — This point is of little use ; the difference between tlie colon and semi- 
colon is so small, that the two pauses are frequently confounded, as may be seen 
by the present version of the Proverbs. We conceive the colon might be reject- 
ed without injury to the perspicuity of sentences ; and punctuation very mucii 
simplified by substituting tlie semicolon and the full point. 

RULE V. 

A sentence making in itself complete sense, requires a period after it ; as 
" Fear God." « Honour the King." 

The period is used also after initials when used alone ; as aflor A. D. for Anno 
Domini ; Q. for question ; and after abbreviations ; as, Col. for Colonel ; Mr. for 
Mister ; &c. for and so forth, or ct cetera. 



Interrogative sentences require a mark of interrogation ; and sentences ex- 
pressing wonder or suprise, a mark of admiration after them ; as, " Whom do 
you see ?" " How wonderful is man !" 



43 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



The following characters are also frequently used in composition. 

The dash [ — ] marks a break in the Sentence, or an abrupt turn ; as, " If 
thou art he — but Oh ! how fallen ! how degraded !" 

" Here lies the great — false marble, where ? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here." 

It is also used when a long pause is necessary, and ji person is waiting for an 
answer ; as, " Hold up thy hand, make signal of thy hope — He dies, and tnakes 
no sign !" 

• Parentheses ( ) include a remark or clause, not essential to the sentence in 
construction, but useful in explaining it, or introducing an important idea. They 
mark a moderate pause, and the clause included is read with a depressed tone 
of voice; as, 

" Knpw then this truth; (enough for man to kiow,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." 

Brackets or Hooks [ ] include words that serve to explain a foregoing word 
or sentence; as, " He [John]" &c. "They [the Americans]" &c. " This event 
took place in 1736, [1763, probably an error of the press,] when the enemy," &c. 

Th« mark to distinguish a long syllable, is this - , as, " Rosy ;" and a short 
one thus "-' ; as, '■ iPoUy." The Accent is marked thus ' ; as, " Fan'cy." 

The caret [ a ] denotes an interlineation, and shows where to bring in what 
was- omitted in the first writing ; as, 

a but 

" Without friend the world is a wilderness." 

A A 

The hyphen [ - ] is used to join compound words together ; as, Sea-water, 
lap-dog, tea-pot, &c. but its chief use is to join the parts of words together that 
are written partly in one line and partly in another ; as, " The words in this 
case must be divided according to the most approved rules of good pronun- 
ciation." 

The apostrophe [ ' ] is a sign of the possessive case ; as, " Peter's cane." It 
also contracts words ; as, Lov'd for loved, e'en for even, 'tis for it is, &c. 

The quotation [ " " ] or [ ' ' ] includes a passage that is taken from some 
other author in Ms own words. Where a quotation occurs within a quotation, 
its commencement must be marked by a single inverted comma, and its conclu- 
tion by a single apostrophe ; as, " When Antisthenes was asked, what learning 
was the most necessary, he replied, ' To unlearn that which is naught.' " 

The ellipsis [ — — ] is used when some letters in a word, or some words in a 
sentence are omitted ; as, K- — —g, for King. 

The brace [ > ] unites three poetical lines which have the same rhyme, or con- 
nects a number of words in prose with one common term. 

The section [ § ] divides a discourse or chapter in less parts. 

The paragraph [ IT ] is chiefly used in the Bible, and denotes the beginning 
cf a new subject. 

The index or hand [ [CF] points out a remarkable passage, or something that 
requires particular attention. 

"The asterisk or star [ * ] directs the reader to some note in the margin or bot- 
tom of the page. 

Two or more asterisks generally denote that something is wanting, defective, 
or immodest, in the passage. 

The obelisk or dagger, [ t ] double obelisk or dagger, [ t ] parallel lines, [ |1 ] 
letters of the alphabet, and figures, are used as references to the margin, or bot- 
tom of the page. 



DIRECTIONS RESPECTING THE USE OF 
CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Capitals are used in the following situations. 

1. At the-beginning of every principal word in the titles of books, chapters, &c. 
as, " Johnson's Dictionary of the Enghsh Language ; Rollin's Ancient History." 

2._ The first word of etery book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece of 
writing. 

3. 'The begiiming of the first word after a period ; and if the two sentences 
are totally independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. But, if a 
number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences are thrown into one general 
group ; or, if the construction of the latter sentence depends on the former, all 
of them except the first, may begin with small letters ; as, " How long, ye sim- 
ple ones, win ye love simplicity ? and the scorners delight in their looming .' 
and fools hate knowledge ?" " Alas ! how different ! yet how like the same !" 

4. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon or semicolon, or when 
it is in a direct form ; as, " Always remember this maxim ; ' Know thyself " But 
when a quotation is brought in obliquely after a comma, a capital is unnecessary ; 
as, " Solomon observes, ' that pride goes before destruction.' " The first word 
of an example may also very properly begin with a capital ; as, " Temptation 
proves our virtue." 

5. The pronoun 7, and the interjection 0, must always be capitals ; as, " I 
write ; Hear, O earth." 

6. At the beginning of every line in poetry. 

7. All names, epithets, or qualities of our Creator, are always begun, if not 
wholly written, with capitals ; as, God, Lord, Supreme Being, Almighty, 
Most High, Divine Providence. "The word heaven must always begin with a 
capital, when used as the name of the King of heaven; as, " May Heaven pros- 
per you.'* But when it is used as the name of the abode of the blessed, it may 
begin with a small letter, except at the beginning of a sentence ; as, '• The 
angels of heaven." " The Lord of heaven and earth." 

8. All proper names, of whatever description, must begin with capitals; of 
persons, heathen gods and goddesses, brutes, the planets,* the fixed stars and 
constellations, countries, kingdoms, states, cities, towns, streets, islands, moun- 
tains, rivers, ships, seas, oceans, &c. as, Benjamin Franklin ; Sir Isaac Newton ; 
the Allegany Mountains ; the Ohio River ; Lake Superior : the Red Sea ; the 
Frigate Guerriere. Also all adjectives derived from proper names ; as, the 
Newtonian system ; Grecian, Roman, American, French, Italian, &c. 

9. All titles of honour, professions, and callings of men, particularly when an 
address is made, ought to begin with capitals ; as. President, Govemor, General, 
Judge, Esquire, Mr. &c. Also all qualities used as titles of men ; as. Honourable, 
Reverend, &c. 

10 Capitals are always used to begin the names of all coivts. Societies, and 
public bodies of men ; as, Congress, the General Assembly, the Supreme Judicial 
Court, the Court of Common Pleas, the Humane Society, the Corporation, &c. 

11. The names of all religious sects and denominations, are begun with capi- 
tals ; as, Episcopalians, Baptists, Friends, &<;. 

12. Capitals are always used to begin the names of months, and the days 
of the week ; as, January, February, «fcc. Monday, Tuesday, &c. Also aU puD- 
Uc days ; as, a Public Thanksgiving, a Solemn Fast, &c. 

13. The names of all articles of commerce, when entered in merchants' books, 
advertisements, &c. should begin with capitals ; as, Linen, Cotton, Silk, Riun, 
Sugar, Tea, &c. Also all sums of money specified in notes, bonds, &c. as. Ten 
Dollars and Seventy-five Cents. 

14. Very emphatical words are frequently begun, and sometimes wholly Writ- 
ten in capitals. 

* The earth excepted. 



EXERCISES liV PUNCTUATION. 



COMMA. K 

The tutor by instruction and discipline lays the foundation of the pupil's 
future honour. 

Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospect of many a youth. 

Deliberate slowly execute promptly. 

To live soberly righteously and pi/jusly comprehends the whole of our duty. 
" The path of piety and virtue pursued with a -firm and constant spirit will 
assuredly lead to happiness. 

Continue my dear child to make virtue thy principal study. 

Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortunes. 

He who is a stranger to industry may possess but he cannot enjoy. 

Beware of those rash and dangerous connexions which may afterwards load 
thee with dishonour. 

SEMICOLON. 

The path of truth is a plain and a safe path that of falsehood is a perplexing maze. 

Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth and has ever been esteemed a 
presage of rising merit. 

Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship hell of fierceness and ani- 
mosity. 



COLON. » 

Often is the smile of gayety assumed whilst the heart aches within though ftUy 
may laugh guilt will sting. 

There is no mortal truly wise and restless at the same time wisdom is the re- 
pose of minds. 

PERIOD. 

We ruin the happiness of life when we attempt to raise it too high a tolerable 
and comfortable state is all that we can propose to ourselves on earth peace and 
contentment not bliss nor transport are the full portion of man perfect joy ie re- 
served for heaven. 



INTERROGATION AND EXCLAMATION. 



To lie down on the pillow after a day spent in temperance in beneficcnoftand 
in piety how sweet it is. « ■ 

We wait till to-morrow to be happy alas why not to-day shall we be yom»ge» I 
are we sure we shall be healthier will our passions become feebler and our love 
of the world less. 









GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 

FALSE GRAMMAR, 

ADAPTED TO THE RUIiES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 



4a 



It is no great merit to spel properly ; b\it a great defect to do it incorrectly. — 
Jacob worshipped his Creator, leaning on the top of his staf. — We may place too 
little, as well as too much stres upon dreams. — Our manners should be neither 
gros, nor excessively refined. 

RDLE II. 

A carr signifies a chariot of war, or a small carriage of burden. — In the names 
of druggs and plants, the mistake in a word may endanger lift. 
Nor undelightful is the ceaseless humm . 
To him who muses through the woods at noon. 
The finn of a fish is the limb by which he balances his body, and moves in the 
■,yg.ter. — Many a trapp is laid to insnare the feet of youth. — Many thousand fami- 
lies are supported by the simple business of making matts. 

RULE m. 

We should subject our fancys to the government of reason. — ^If thou art seek- 
ing for the living amongst the dead, thou wearyest thyself in vain. — If we have 
denyed ourselves sinful pleasures, we shall be great gainers in the end. — We 
shall not be the happyer for possessing talents and affluence, unless we make a 
right use of them. — The truly good mmd is not dismaied by poverty, afflictions, 
or death. 

RCLE nr. 
It is a great blessing to have a sound mind, uninfluenced by fancyful hu- 
mours. — Common calamities, and common blessings, fall heavyly upon the envi- 
ous. — The comelyness of youth are modesty and frankness ; of age, condescen- 
sion and dignity. — When we act against conscience, we become the destroiersof 
our own peace. — We may be plaiful, and yet innocent; grave, and yet corrupt. 
It is only from general conduct, that our true character can be portraied. 

RULE V. 

When we bring the lawmaker into contempt, we have in effect anuled his 
laws. — By defering our repentance, we accumulate our sorrows. — The pupils of 
a certain ancient "philosopher, were not, during their first years of study, per- 
mited to ask any questions. — We have all many faillings and lapses to lament and 
recover. There is no aJBliotion with which we are visitted, that may not be im- 
proved to our advantage. — The Christian Lawgiver has prohibitted many things, 
which the heathen philosophers allowed. 

RULE VI. 

Restlesness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoyment of peace, and the 
performance of our duty. — The arrows of calumny faU harmlesly at the feet of 

virtue. The road to the blisful regions, is as open to the peasant as the king. — 

A chillness or shivering of the body generally precedes a fever. — To recommend 
virtue to others, our Lghts must shine brfghtly, not dullly. 

The silent stranger stood amaz'd to see 

Contempt of wealth, and vnllfU poverty. 

RULE vn. 
The warmth of disputation, destroys that eedatness of mind which is neces- 
sary to discover truth. 

All these with ccasless ptaifie his works behold. 
Both day and night. 
In aU our reasonings, our minds should be sincerly employed in the pursuit 
of truth. — Rude behaviour, and indecent language, are peciJiarly disgracful to 
youth of education.— The true worship of God is an important and aweful ser- 
vice. — Wisdom alone is truely fair -. folly only appears so. 



RULE Till. 



The study of the Ennjish language is making daily advancment.- 
arrangment of studies facilitates improvment. 
To shun allurments is not hard, 
To minds resolv'd, forewarn'd, and well prepar'd. 



-A judicious 



Every person and tiling connected with self, is apt to appear good and desire- 
able in our eyes. — Errors and miscor-duct are more excuseable in ignorant, than 
in well-instructod persons. — The divine laws are not revcrseible by those of 
nwn. — Gratitude is a forcoiblo and active principle in good and generous minds. 
— Ova natural and involuntary defects of body, are not chargable upon us. — 
We are made to be servicaUIe to others, as well o^ to ourselves. 

11 



RULE X. 

An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected with a servile and 
cringeing humour. — By solaceing the sorrows of others, the heart is improved 
at the same time that our duty is performed. — Labour and expense are lost upon 
a droneish spirit. — The inadvertencies of youth may be excused, but knaveish 
tricks should meet with severe reproof. 

EULE XI. 

Love worketh no ill to our neighbour, and is the fullfilling of the law. — ^That 
which is sometimes expedient, is not allways so. — We may be hurtfull to others, 
by our example, as well as by personal injuries. — Wliere diligence opens the 
door of the understanding, and impartiality keeps it, truth finds an entrance and 
a wellcome too. 

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES. 

Neglect no oppurtunity of doing good. 
No man can stedily build upon accidents. 
How shall we keep, what sleeping or awake, 
A weaker may surprize, a stronger take. 
Neither time nor misfortunes should eraze the rememberance of a friend.— 
Moderation should preside, both in the kitchin and the parlor. — Shall we re- 
cieve good at the Divine hand, and shall we not recieve evil ? — In many de-, 
signs, we may succede and be miserable. — We should have sence and virtue 
enough to receed from our demands, when they appear to be unresonable. — All 
our comforts precede from the Father of Gropdness. — The ruin of a state is gene- 
rally proceeded by a universal degenaracjkf manners, and a contempt of re- 
ligion. — His father omited nothing in his education, that might render him vir- 
tuous and useful!. — The daw in tlie fable was dressed in pilforred ornaments. — 
A favor confered with delicacy, doubles the obligation. — They tempted their 
Creator, and limitted the Holy One of Izrael. — The preeepts of a good educa- 
tion have often recured in the time of need. — We are frequently benefitted by, 
what we have dreaded. — It is no great virtue to live loveingly with good-natured 
and meek persons. — Tlie Christian religion gives a, more lovly character of God, 
than any religion ever did. — Without sinisterous views, they are dextrous 
managers of their own interest. Any thing commited to the trust and care of 
another, is a deposit. 

Here finnish'd he, and all that he had made, 
Vieu'd and beheld ! All was intirely good. 
It deserves our best skil to enquire into those rules, by which we may guide 
our judgement. — Food, clotheing,and Irabitations, are tlie rewards of industry. — 
If we lie no restraint upon our lusts, no controul upon our apetites and passions, 
they will hurry us into guilt and misery. — An independant is one who, in reli- 
gious affairs, holds that every congregation is a compleat Church. 
Receive his council and securly move : 
Entrust thy fortune to the Power above. 
Follov/ing life in cretures we disect. 
We loose it in tlie moment we detect. 
The acknowledgement of our transgressions must precede the forgivnesa of 
them. — Judicious abridgements often aid the studys of youtli. 
Examine how thy humor is enclin'd. 
And which the ruleing passion of thy mind. ^ 

He faultcrs at the question : 

His fears, his words, his looks, declare him guilty. 
Calicoe is an Indian stuff made of cotton ; sometimes stained with lively 
colors. — To promote iniquity in others, is nearly the saino as being the acters of 
it ourselvs. — The glasier's business was unknown to the antients. — The anteco- 
dant, in grammcr, is the noun to which the rektivc refers. — Be not aifraid of the 
wicked : they are under tho controul of Providence. Consciousness of guilt 
may justly afright ns. — Convey to others no inteligonce which you would be 
ashamed to avow. — Many are weighed in the ballanco, and found wanting. — 
How many disapointments have, in their cousucjuences, saved a man ttom 
ruin! — A well-poised mind makes a chearfiil countenance. — A certain hous- 
holdcr planted a vinyard, but tho men imploycd in it made ungratefuU re- 
turns. — Let us show dilUgence in every laudable undertaking. — Cinamon is the 
fragrant bark of a low tree in the iland of Ceylon. — ^A ram will but with his 
head, though ho be brought up tame, and never saw tho action. — Wo percieve 
a piece of silver in a bason, when water is poured on it, though we could not 
discover it before. — Virtue imlialms the memory of the good. — Tho king of 
Great Brittain is a limitted monarch ; and tho Urittish nation a free people. — 
The phisician may dispcnco tho mcdicin, but Providence alone can bless it. — 
In many persuits, wo imbark with pleasure, and land sorrowfiilly. — Rooka, 



44 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



rite 



mountains, and caverns, are of indispensible use, both to the earth and to man. 

The hive of a city, or kingdom, is in the best condition, when their is the 

least noize or buz in it. — The roughnesses found on our enterance into the paths 
of virtue and learning, grow smoother as we advance. — That which was once the 
most beautifull spot of Italy, coverred with pallaces, imbellished by princes, and 
cellebrated by poets, has now nothing to show but ruins. — Batterring rams were 
antiently used to beat down the walls of a city. — Jocky signifies a man that 
rides horses in a race ; or who deals in horses. — The harmlesness of many ani- 
mals, and the injoyment which they have of life, should plead for»them against 
cruel useage. — We may be very buzy to no usefiill purpose. — We cannot plead 
in atatment of our guilt, that we are ignorent of our duty. — Genuine charaty, 
how liberal soever it may be, will never impoverish ourselves. If we sew 
spareingly, we shall reap acordingly. — However disagreable, we must resolutly 
perforni our duty. — ^A fit of sickness is often a kind chastisment and disciplin, to 
moderate our affection for the things of this life. — It is a happiness to young per- 
sons, when they are preserved from the snares of the world, as in a garden in- 
closed. — Health and peace, the most valueable posessions, are obtained at small 
expence. — Incence signifies perfumes exhailed by fire, and made use of in;>re- 
ligious ceremonies. — True happyness is an ennemy to pomp and noize. — Few 
reflexions are more distre.sing, than those which we make on our own ingrati- 
tude. — There is an inseperable connection between piety and virtue. — Many 
actions have a fajr complection, which have not sprung from virtue. — Which 
way soever we turn ourselvs, we are incountered with sensable demonstrations 
of a Deity. — If we forsake tlie ways of virtue, we cannot alledge any color of 
io-noranoe, or want of instruction. — There are more cultivators of the earth, 
t^an of their own hearts. — Man is incompassed with dangers innumerable. — War 
is attended with distresful and dessolating effects. It is confesedly the scorge of 
our angry passions. — The earth is the Lord's, and the fullness therof. — The 
harvest truely is plenteous, but the laborers are few. — The greater our incit- 
ments to evil, the greater will be our victory and reward. — We should not in- 
courage persons to do what they beleive to be wrong. — Virtue is placed between 
two extreams, which are on both sides, equally biameable. — We should con- 
tinually have the gaol in our eyes, which would direct us in the race. — The 
goals were forced open, and the prisoners set free. — It cannot be said that we are 
charitible doners, when our gifts proceed from selfish motives. — Straight is the 
gate, and narrow the way, that lead to life eternal. — Integrity leads us strait 
forward, disdaining all doubleings, and crooked paths. — Licenciousness and 
crimes pave the way to ruin. — Words are the countres of wise men, but the 
money of fools. — Recompence to no man evil for evil. — He was an excellent 
pwson ; a mirrour of antient faith in early youth. — Meekness controuls our 
angry passions ; candor, our severe judgments. — He is not only a descendent 
from pious ancestors, but an inhm'iter too of their virtues. — An idle person 
spends his time, arid eats the fiuitPof the earth, like a vermin or a wolf — Faith- 
fulness and judgment are peculiarly requisit in testamentory executors. — To be 
faithfull among the faithless, argues great strength of principal. — Mountains ap- 
pear to be like so many wens or unatural protuberancies on the face of the 
earth. — In some places the sea incroaches upon the land ; in others, the land 
upon tlie sea. — Pliilosopliers agreed in despizing riches, as the encumberances of 
life. — W^ars are regulated robberries and pyracies. — Fishes encrease more than 
beasts or birds, as appears from their numrous spaun. — The piramids of Egypt 
have stood more than three thousand years. — Precepts have small influence, 
when npt inforced by example. 

How has kind Heav'n adorn'd the happy land, 
And scatter'd blessings with a wastful hand. 

A friend exaggarates a man's virtues, an enemy enflames his crimes.^ — A wit- 
ty and humourous vein has often produced ennemies. — Neither pleasure nor 
buisness should ingress our time and affections ; proper seasons should be alotted 
for retirnicnt. — It is laudable to enquire before we determin. — Many have been 
visitted with afflictions, who have not profitted by them. — We may be succesful, 
and yet disapointed.— The experience of want inhances the value of plenty. — 
To maintain opinions stifly, is no evidence of their truth, or of our moderation. — 
Horehouiid has been famous for its medecinal qualities ; but it is now little 
used. — The wicked are often ensnared in the trap wliich they lie for others. — 
It is hard to say what diseases are cureable : they are all under the guidance of 
heaven. — Instructors should not only be skilfull in those sciences which they 
teach ; but have skil in the method of teaching, and patience in the practise. — 
Science strengthens and mlarges the minds of men. — A steady mind may re- 
ceive council ; but there is no hold on a changable humour. — We may enure 
ourselves by custom, to bear the extremities of whetlier without injury. — Ex- 
cessive mcrrym'ent is the parent of greif — Air is sensable to the touch by its 
motion, and by its resistence to bodies moved in it. — A polite address is some- 
times the cloke of malicB, — To practice virtue is the sure way to love it. — Many 
things are plausable in theory, which fail in practise. — Learning and knowledge 
mnst be attained by slow degi;ees, and are the reward only of dilligence and 
patience. — We should study to live peacably with all men. 



A soul that can securly death defy. 
And count it nature's priviledge to die. 

Whatever promotes the interest of the soul, is also condusive to our present 
felicity. — Let not the sterncss of virtue afright us ; she will soon become 
aimable. 

The spatious firmament on high. 

With all the blue etheriel sky. 



And spangled heav'ns, a shineing frame, 
Their great originel proclame. 

Passion is the drunkeness of the mind ; it supercedes the workings of reason. — 
If we are sincere, we may be assured of an advocate to intersede for us, — We 
ought not to consider the increase of another's reputation, as a dimunition of 
our own. — The reumatism is a painful distemper, supposed to precede from acrid 
humors. — The beautiful and accompUshed, are too apt to study behaivour rather 
than virtue. — The peazant's cabbin contains as much content as the soverein's 
pallace. — True valor protects the feeble, and humbles the oppressor. — David 
the son of Jesse, was a wise and valient man. — Prophecies and miracles pro- 
clamed Jesus Christ to be the Savior of the world. — Esau sold his birthright for 
a savory mess of pottage. — A regular and virteous education, is an inestemable 
blessing. 

Honor and shame from no condition rise ; 
Act v/ell your part ; there all the honor lies. 

The rigor of monkish discipUn often conceals great depravity of heart. We 

should recollect, that however favourable we may be to ourselves, we are rigour- 
ously examined by others. — Virtue can render youth, as well as old age, honora- 
ble. — Rumor often tells false tales. — Weak minds are rufled by triffling things. 
— The cabage-tree is very common in the Caribbee ilands, where it grows to a 
prodigious heighth. — Visit the sick, feed the hungry, cloath the naked. — His 
smiles and tears are two artifitial to be relied on. — The most essensial virtues of 
a Christian, are love to God and benevolence to man. — We should be chearfiil 
without levity. — A calender signifies a register of the year, and a calendar, a 
press in which clothiers smooth their cloth. — Integrity and hope are the sure 
softners of sorrow. — Camomile is an odouriferous plant, and possesses considera- 
ble medicinel virtues. — The gaity of youth should be tempered by the precepts 
of age. — Certainty, even oh distresful occasions, is somtimes more eligible than 
suspence. 

StiU green with bays each antient alter stands, 
Above the reach of sacriligious hands. 
The most acceptable sacrifise is that of a contrite and humble heart. — We are 
accountable for whatever we patronize in others. — It marks a savage disposition, 
to tortur animals, to make them smart and agonise for our diversion. — The edge 
of cloath, where it is closed by complicating the threads, is called the selvidge. 
— Soushong tea and Turky coffee were his favorite beveridge : chocolade he sel- 
dom drank. — The guilty mind cannot avoid many melanchoUy apprehensions. 

If we injure others, we must expect retalliation. — Let every man be fully per- 
swadedm his own mind. — Peace and honour are the sheeves of virtue's harvest. 
The black earth, every where obvious on the surface of the earth, we call mold. 

— The Roman pontif claims to be the supream head of the church on earth. 

High-seasoned food violates the pallate, and disgusts it with plain fare. The 

conscious receiver is as bad as the thief. — Alexander, the conqueror of the 
world, was, in fact, a robber and a murderer. — The Divine Being is not only 
the Creator, but the Ruler and Preserver of the world. — Honest endeavors, if 
persevered in, will finally be succesftil.— He who dies for religion, is a martyr ; 
he who suffers for it, is a confessour. — In the paroxism of passion, we sometimes 
give occasion for a life of repentence. — The mist which invelopes many studies, 
is dissipated when we approach them. — The voice is sometimes obstructed by a 
hoarsness, or by viscuous phlegm. — The desart shall rejoice, and blossom as the 
rose. — The fruit and sweetmeats set on table after the meat, are called the 
desert. — We traversed the flowry fields, till the falling dews admonished us to 
return. — There is frequently a worm at the root of our most florisliing con- 
dition. — The stalk of ivey is tough, and not fragil. — The roof is vaulted, and dis- 
tills fresh water from every part of it. — Our imperfections are discernable by 
others, when we think they are concealed. — They think they shall be beared for 
there much speaking. — True critizism is not a captious, but a liberal art. In- 
tegrity is our best defense against the evils of hfe. — No circumstance can hcence 
evil, nor dispence with the rules of virtue. — We may be cyphers in the world's 
estimation, whilst we are advancing our own and others' value. — The path of 
vertue is the path of peace. — A diptheng is the coilition of two vowels to form 

one soimd. — However forceable our temptations, they may be resisted. I ac- 

knowlege my transgression ; and my sin is ever before me. — The colledge of 
cardinals are the electers of the pope. — He had no colorable excuse to palliate 
his conduct. 

Thy humourous vein, thy pleasing folly, 

Lie all neglected, all forgot. 

If we are so conceited as obstinatly to reject all advice, we must expect a di- 
, reliction of friends. — 'Cronology is the science of computeing and ajusting the 
periods of time. 

In groves we live, and lay on mossy beds, 
By chrystal streams that murmer tnro' the meads. 
It is a secret cowardise which induces us to complement the vices of our su- 
periors, to applaud the libertin, and laugh with the prophane. — "The lark each 
morning waked me with her spritely lay. — There are no fewer than thirty-two 
species of the Ally. — We owe it to our visitors as well as to ourselves, to enter- 
tain them with useful and sensable conversation. — Sponsors are those who be- 
come sureties for the children's education in the Christian faith. — The warrier's 
fame is often purchased by the blood of thousands.— -Hope exhilerates the mind, 
and is the grand ehxer, under all the evils of life.— The incence of gratitude, 
whilst it e-xpresses our duty, and honors our benefacter, perfumes and regails 
ourselves. 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



FALSE GRAMMAR, 



ADAPTED TO THE RUL.ES OF SYNTAX. 



45' 






— ^O©— 



RULE 1, 

Thee must be more attentive to thy studies. — Them that oppress the poor to 
increase their riches, shall come to want. — Her that is virtuous, deserves 
esteem. — Whomsoever is contented, enjoys happiness. — Him that thinks twice 
before he speaks once, will speak twice the better for it. — He admonished all 
whom he thought had been disorderly, to be more watchful in future. — How 
dost thee do ? — Art thee well ? — Hast thee been to town to-day ? — I can run as 
far as him. — You spoke better than her. — These are better than them. 



The girls was here yesterday. — Thou should be more diligent in attending to 
thy studies. — Great pains has been taken to little purpose. — Frequent commis- 
sion of sin, harden men in it. — There is many occasions in Ufe, in which silence 
and simplicity are marks of true wisdom. — He dare not act contrary to his in- 
structions. — What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suitably to 
them ? — Not one of them whom thou hast clothed in purple, are happy. — The 
following treatise, together with those which accompany it, were written many 
years ago, for my satisfaction. — In him were happily blended true dignity with 
softness of manners. — Reconciliation was offered, on conditions as moderate as 
was consistent with a permanent union. — Slight as the value of the things of 
time are, we continue to pursue them with unremitting diligence. 

RULE V. 

He acted agreeable to his promise. — He speaks very fluent, but does not rea- 
son very coherently. — The task was the easier performed, from the cheerfulness 
with which they engaged in it. — He conducted himself very unsuitable to his 
profession. — She writes very neat, and spells accurate. — He was so deeply im- 
pressed with the subject, that few could speak nobler upon it. — Alas ! they are 
miserable poor. — She was exceeding careful not to give offence. — He was pro- 
digal, and his property is now near exhausted. — You read that very good. 

RULE VI. 

The master loves thou, because thou art diligent. — He that is idle and mis- 
chievous reprove sharply. — Who have I reason to love so much as this friend of 
ray youth. — The man who he raised from obscurity is dead. — He and they we 
know, but who art thou .' — Who did they entertain so freely .'' — If he will not 
hear his best friend, who shall we send to admonish him .' — They who have la- 
boured to make us wise and good, are the persons who we ought particularly to 
love and respect. — Whatever others do, let thou and I perform our duty. — We 
should love, fear, and obey the Author of our being, as He who has power to re- 
ward or punish us for ever. — He who committed the offenco, thou shouldst cor- 
rect, not I who am innocent. — Who do you see coming .' — Ye have reason to 
dread his wrath, which one day will destroy ye both. 

RULE VII. 

Suspecting not only we, but they also, he was studious to avoid all inter- 
course. — You are displeased with me for admonishing ye. — I could not avoid 
considering, in some degree, they as enemies to me, and thou as a suspicious 
friend. — From having exposed hisself too freely in different climes, he entirely 
lost his health. 

RULE Tin. 

Who did he give the book to ? — From he that is needy and afflicted, turn not 
away. — Associate not thyself with those who none can speak well of. — Who does 
he study with ? — What concord can subsist between those who commit crimes, 
and they who abhor them .' — From the character of those persons who you asso- 
ciate with, your own will be established. — I hope it is not I who they are dis- 
pleased with. — Who are you to work for .' 

RULE IK. 

Thou art him who sold the books. — I believe it to be they who raised the re- 
port. — It was not me who made the noise. — I would act the same part, if I were 
him, or in his situation. — He so much resembled his brother, that at first sight I 
tottb it to be he. — It could not have been her, for she always acts discreetly. — 
He is not the person whom he appeared to be. — After all their professions, is it 
possible to be them ? — It might have been him, but there is no proof of it. — If it 
were not him, who do you imagine it to have been .' — Who do you think me to 
be ?— Whom do men say that I am ? — Let him be who he may, I am not afraid 
of him — I cannot tell who has befriended me, unless it is him from whom I have 
received many benefits. 



RULE X. 

Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. — Thy fathers offence will not condemn 
thee. — Wisdoms precepts are the good boys greatest delight. — Hast thou read 
Cowpers poems .' — The girls books were kept in better order than the boys. — 
I will not destroy the city for tens sake. — Nevertheless, Asa his heart was per- 
fect with the Lord. — A mothers tenderness, and a fathers care, are natures gifts' 
for marts advantage. — ^A mans manner's frequently influence his fortune. — Wis- 
doms precepts' form tlie good mans interest and happiness. — And he cast himse-lf 
down at Jesus feet. — Moses rod was turned into a serpent. — For Herodias sake, 
his brother Philip's wife. — If ye suffer for righteousness's sake, happy are ye. — 
Ye should be subject for conscience's sake. 

RULE XI. 

I gave my book to James my cousin, he who was here yesterday. — This house 
belongs to Samuel, the carpenter, he who built the house. — Augustus, the Roman 
emperor, him who succeeded Julius Cesar, is variously described. — Those books 
are my friend's, liim who keeps the Hbrary. — The estate was left to Simori and 
John, the two eldest sons, they that had been to Europe. — Art thou acquainted 
with Clarissa, the milliner, she whom we met in our walks this morning ? 

RULE XIII. 

He is a wise man which speaks little. — I do not think that any person should 
be censured for being careful of their reputation. — The woman which we saw 
is very amiable. — Rebecca took goodly raiment, which was with her in the 
house, and put them on Jacob. — Tliey which seek wisdom will certainly find 
her. — The male among birds seems to discover no beauty, but in the colour of 
its species. — Every person, whatever be their station, should attend to the duties 
of morality and religion. — Let eacli of us cheerfully bear our part in the gene- 
ral burdeit— If an animal should be taken out of its instinct, wc should find 
him wholly destitute of understanding. — An orator's tongue should be agreeable 
to the ears of their auditors. — Take handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let 
Moses sprinkle it towards the heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh ; and it shall be- 
come small dust. — The exercise of reason appears as little in the sportsmen, as 
in the beasts whom they sometunes himt, and by whom they are sometimes 
hunted. 

RULE XIV. 

He loves you and I.— I esteem him, and her, and they.— My brother and him 
are tolerable grammarians. — You and us enjoy many privileges. — She and him 
are very unhappily connected. — Peter and me went to church. — Between you 
and I there is some disparity of years ; but none between him and she. — If a man 
say, I love God, and hates his brother, he is a liar.— If thou sincerely desire and 
earnestly pursuest virtue, she will be found of thee. — He would neither do it 
himself, nor suffered another to do it.— You and her and him are to blamed.— 
He invited my brother and I to see his garden. — She is more fond of gayety than 
him. 

RULE XV. 

Him having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed.— Them being will- 
ing to improve, the study was rendered agreeable. — Her being, absent, the busi- 
ness was attended to by others.— They all had liberty to go, us only excepted.— 
The sun's being risen,'it became very warm.— They wore all more or Jess cen- 
surable, her only excepted, who was very circumspect in her conduct. — Thee 
having been unwatchful, the work is rendered more difficult. 

RULE XVI. 

It is better to live on a little, than outlive a great deal.— You ought not walk 
too hastily.— We wish neither to write, nor read so fast.— She thought to went 
home last week. — He desires theo stay for him. 

RULE XVIII. 

I need not to solicit hun to do a kind action.— It is the difference of their con- 
duct, which makes us to approve the one, and reject the other.— I bid him to shut 
tlio door.— I have seen some young persons to conduct themselves very discreet- 
ly.— I dare not to presume so hastily, lest 1 should give offence.— I bid lum to go, 
but he refused.— I feel my heart to beat, but very faintly.— I dare not to express 
my sentiments upon so contested a subject.— I dare to say that we need not to urge 
nor to bid Charles to study liis grammar : it is so plain as to make him to see the 
propriety of what he says, and to hear, understandmgly, tlie explanations of his 
teacher. We need, therefore, only to let him to have tlic book ; and if he see 
the other boys to learn, he will feel his heart to beat high with ambition. 



Mji 



46 GBAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



FALSE GRAMMAR, 

ADAPTED TO THE NOTES UNDER THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 



Note 1, under rule i. To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are re- 
quired of all men. — To do unto all men, as we would that they, in similar cir- 
cumstances, should do unto us, constitute the great principles of virtue. — That 
it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds and bodies, to be just and kind 
to our feliow-creatures, and to be pious and faithful to Him that made us, admit 
not of any doubt in a rational and well-informed mind. 

Note 2, vnder bile i. He that will learn, let him learn. — He that wishes 

to be great, let him pay diligent attention to his studies. — Whoever entertains 
such an opinion, he judges erroneously. 

Note 3, under kule i. The sincere is always esteemed. — The inquisitive 

is generally talkative. — The generous never recounts minutely the actions they 
have done ; nor the prudent, thoso they will do. 

Note 3, under rule ii. The people rejoices in that which should cause 

it sorrow. — The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the 
shepherd's care. — The court have just ended, after having sat through the trial 
of a very long cause. — The crowd were so great, that the judges with difRculty 
made their way through them. — The Corporation of New- York consist of a Mayor, 
Aldermen, and Common Council. — The British Parliament are composed of 
king, lords, and commons. — When the nation complain, the rulers should listen 
to their voice. — In the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as 
its chief good. — The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. — 
The flcCtWere seen sailing up the channel. — A great number do not always ar- 
gue sicength. — The meeting have established several salutary regulations. — The 
co^lncil was not unanimous, and it separated without coming to any determin<a- 
tion. — The fleet is all arrived and moored in safety. — The committee was divided 
in its .sentiment, and it lias referred the business to the general meeting. — The 
committee was ver}' full when this point was decided ; and their judgment has 
not been callod in question. — Why do this generation wish for greater evidence, 
when so much is already given ? — The remnant of the people were persecuted 
with great severity. — Never were any people so much infatuated as the Jewish 
nation. — The shoal of herrings were of immense extent. — No society are charge- 
able with the disapproved conduct of particular members. 

Note 7, under rule hi. He is tlio strongest of the two. — This is the bet- 
ter apple of the three. — James and Samuel are brothers ; and though James is 
the eldest, Samuel is the tallest of tlie two. — Which of those three kites is the 
liigher .' — His parents frequently visited him ; but his mother, much the oftenest. 
— Samuel and Thomas are studying grammar, but as the latter is the most dili- 
gent of the two, he will probably attain a knowledge of it the soonest. — A talent 
of this kind, would, perhaps, prove the likeliest of any other to succeed. 

Note 8, under rule hi. These kind of indulgences softens and injures 

the mind. — Instead of improving yourselves, you have been playing this two 
hours. — Those sort of favours did real injury, under the appearance of kindness. 
— Please to give me that scissors. — I have not seen my parents this eight months. 
— We do not approve of these kind of practices. — Let us observe order, and ap- 
ply ourselves witli industry and care to our studies ; and by this means we shall 
become learned and respected. 

NoTif 10, under rule hi. Give me one of them apples. — Which of them 

two persons has most distinguished himself 

Note 1, vnder rule v. He was pleasing not often, because he was vain. 

— William nobly acted, though he was unsuccessful. — From whence we may 
date likewise the period of this event. — It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous 
therefore to remonstrate. — He offered an apology, which being not admitted, he 
became submissive. — These things should be never separated. — Unless he have 
more government of himself, he will be always discontented. — Never sovereign 
was so inu„h beloved hy the people. — He was determined to invite back the king, 
and to call together his friends. — Not only he found her employed, but pleased 
and tranquil also. — We ahvays should prefer our duty to our pleasure. — It is 
impossible continually to bo at work. — ^The heavenly bodies are in motion per- 
petually. — Having not known, or having not considered, the measures proposed, 
lie failed of success. — My opinion was given upon rather a cursory perusal of the 
book. — It is too common with mankind, to be engrossed, and overcome totally, by 
present events. — When the Romans were jxrcsscd with a foreign army, the 
women contributed all their rings and jewels voluntarily, to assist the govern- 
ment. — Wo ought to thankfully receive the many blessings with which we arc 
favoured.— Please not to interrupt mo. — We should strive to daily improve our 
precious time. — She is said to excellently have performed her part. — To always 
keep in view, the uncertainty of time, is the way to rightly estimate it. 

Note 7, under rule v. 1 tliink I cannot help him no more. — Nothing 

never alTcclcd him so much as this misconduct of Viis friend. — Do not interrupt 
mo thyself, nor let no one disturb iny retirement. — Death never spareth none. 
I cannot give no more for it. — Be lionest, nor take no shape nor semblance 
disguise. 



I shape nor semblance of 



Note 2, under rule vii. By the exercising our judgment, it is improved. 

— It is an overvaluing ourselves, to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of 
our own capacities. — By observing of truth, thou wilt command esteem, as well 
as secure peace. — A person cannot be wise or good, without the taking pains for 
it. — ^The loving our enemies is a divine command. — Learning of languages ia 
very difficult. — By reading of books written by tlie best authors, his mind be- 
came highly improved. — The not attending to this rule is the cause of a very 
common error. 

Note 3, under rule vii. If some events had- not fell out very imexpect- 

edly , I should have been present. — He soon begun to be weary of having nothing 
to do. — The house was shook by the violence of the storm. — He had wrote and 
read much on the subject. — I seen my old friend last week. — They who have 
bore a part in the labour, shall share the reward. — By too eager a pursuit, he 
run a great risk of being disappointed. — When the rules have been wantonly 
broke, there can be no plea for favour. — He would not have went, if he had 
known it. — ^You who have forsook your friends, are entitled to no confidence. 

Note 3, under rule viii. On these occasions, the pronoxm is governed 

by, and consequently agrees with, the preceding word. — They were remsed en- 
trance into, and forcibly driven from the house. 

Note 10, under rule viii. We should entertain no prejudice to simple 

and rustic persons. — She finds no difficulty of fixing her mind. — There was no 
water, and he died for thirst. — We can fiilly confide on none but the truly good. 
— I have no occasion of his services. — Many have profited from good advice. — 
Her sobriety is no derogation to her understandiog. — The error was occasioned 
by compliance to earnest entreaty. — This is a principle that is consonant with 
our nature. — The first proposal was essentially different, and inferior to the 
second. — Several alterations and additions have been made to the work. — The 
former part of the sentence equally relates, and is connected with the latter. — 
Neither has he, nor any other persons, suspected so much dissimulation. — The 
intentions of some of those philosophers, nay, of many, might, and probably 
were good. — Sincerity is as valuably and even more valuable than knowledge. — 
Thou nearest the sound of the wind, but canst not tell whence it comest, aiul 
whither it goest. — The deaf man, whose ears were opened, and his tongue loos- 
ened, doubtless glorified the great Physician. — He is more bold and active, but 
not so wise and studious as nis companion. — I have written to my friend last 
week, but have yet received no answer. — He is a person whom I remember 
these many years. — I have been in London a year, and seen the king last sum- 
mer. — After we visited the city, we returned, content and thankful, to ouj re- 
tired and peaceful habitation. — Next, week is the time for holding the annual 
meeting. — I have compassion on the multitude, because they continue with me 
now three days. — I should be obliged to him, if he will gratify me in that par- 
ticular. — The next new-year's day, I shall be at school three years. — Jolm will 
earn his wages, when his service is completed. — Be that as it will, he cannot 
justify his conduct. — I purpose to go to New- York next week : and after I have 
finished there, to proceed to the Southern States. — I very much desire that I 
might be more watchful in future. — Ye will not come imto me that you might 
have life. — And he that was dead sat up and began to speak. — His sea-sicknese 
was so great, that 1 often feared he would have died before our arrival. — It re- 
quired so much care that I thought I should have lost it before I reached home. 
— Must it not not be expected, that he would have defended an autliority, which 
had been so long exercised without controversy .'' 

Note 2, under rule x. 1 bought the knives at Johnson's, the cutler's.— 

The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haberdasher's. — Lord 
Feversham's the general's tent. — This palace had been the Grand Sultan's, Ma- 
homet's. — I will not for David's thy father's sake. — He took refuge at tlie Gto- 
vcrnor, the king's representative's. — Whose works are tliese f they are Cicero, 
the most eloquent of men's. 

Note 3, under ruli; x. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot, to 

suff"er great calamities. — Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation, was tliat of 
fisherrnsn. — This measure gained the king, as well as the people's approbation.— 
Not only tlie counsel's and attorney's, but the judge's opinion also, favoured his 
cause. — The world's government is not left to chance. — She married my son's 
wife's brotlier. — This is my wife's brother's partner's house. — It was necessary to 
have both the pliysician's and the .surgeon's advice. — Tliey verj' justly condemned 
the prodigal's, as they callod him, senseless and extravagant conduct. — They im- 
plicitly obeyed their protector's, ;)js thev called him, imperious mandates,' — The 
extent of the prerogative of tiie lung of England, is sufficiently ascertained. 

Note 4, under rule x. This picture of the king's does not rauclj resem- 
ble him. — These pictures of the king were sent to him from Italy. — This estate 
of the corporation's is much encumbered. — Tliat is the eldest son of the king of 
England's. 

Note 6, under rule x. What can be the cause of the Parliament neg- 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



lectin^ so important a business ? — Much depends on this rule being observed. — 
The time of William making the experiment at length arrived. — It is very 
probable tliat this assembly was called, to clear some doubts which the king had, 
about the lawfulness of the Hollanders their throwing off the monarchy of 
Spain, and their vrithdrawing entirely their allegiance to that crown. — If we 
alter the situation of any of the words, we shall presently be sensible of the 
melody suffering. — Such will ever be the effect of youth associating with vicious 
companions. 

Note 1, under rule xii. Oh! thee, who art so unmindftil of thy duty! — 

Ah ! wretched I, how tmgrateful ! — O ! happy them, surrounded with so many 
blessings I — Hail thee, that art highly favoured ! — How swiftly our time passes 



47 

leads men; under the semblance of piety, on the one hand, and |f virtue on the 
other hand. — It was no exaggerated tale ; for she was really in tmt sad condition 
that her friend represented her. — An ariny present a painful' siait to a feeling 
mind. — The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of ou7 own hearts. — 
Thou art the Messiali, the Son of God, who was to come int/ the world, and 
hast been so long promised and desired. — Thomas disposition i/better than his 
brothers ; and he appears to be the happiest man : but some deree of trouble is 
all men's portion. — Though remorse sleep sometimes during prosperity, it will 
awake surely in adversity. — It is an invariable law to our jresent condition, 
that every pleasure that are pursued to e.xcess, convert themseves into poison. — 
If a man brings into the solitary retreat of age, a vacant, anflnimproved mind, 



I 



away ! and ah ! we, how little concerned to improve it ! — Welcome thee, who where no knowledge davms, no ideas rise ; which within itsllf has nothing to 



hast been so long expected 

Note 1, under rule xni. The cares of this world they often choke the 

growth of virtue. — Disappointments and afflictions, however disagreeable, thej-- 
often improve us. 

Note ti, under rule xiii. He would not be persuaded but what I was 

greatly in fault.— I do not doubt but what he did it for the best. 

Note 1, under rule siv. Sobriety and humility leads to honour. — Idle- 
ness and ignorance are the parent of many vices. — Humility and love, whatever 
obscurities may involve religious tenets, constitutes the essence of true religion. 
— Why is wliiteness and coldness in snow .' — What signifies the coimsel and care 
of preceptors, when youth tliink they have no need of assistance .' — Religion and 
knowledge excels wealth and grandeur, and it will render its posssssor more 
honourable. — Coffee and sugar is imported from the West Indies, and great quan- 
tities of it are used every year. — The inquisitive and curious is generally talk- 
ative. — To be of a pure and humble mind, to execute benevolence towards 
others, and to cultivate piety towards God, is the sure means of becoming peace- 
I fill and happy. 

Note 2, under rule xiv. Neither he nor she were at home. — Ignorance 

or negligence have been the causes of this mistake. — Neither Helen nor Julia 
are the ladies, whom we saw at their devotion. — Knowledge or virtue are 
preferable to riches ; strive therefore in early youth to attain them. — We are 
not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely as they are 
moved. — Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life ; for 
they are, perhaps, to be thy own lot. — There are many faults in spelling, which 
neither analogy nor pronunciation justify. — Speaking impatiently to servants, or 
any thing that betrays inattention or ill humour, are certainly criminal. — Let it 
be remembered, that it is not the uttering, or the hearing of certain words, that 
constitute the worship of the Almighty. 

Note 3, under rule xiv. Either thou or I art greatly mistpkon in our 

judgment. — I or thou am the person who must undertake the business proposed. 
— He or I is to blame. — I or he am going to college. 

Note 4, under rule xiv. Neither tJiey nor he was present. — Neither 

riches nor poverty was injurious to him. — Either the boys or thou wast in fault. 
--The cares of this life, or the deceitfulness of riches, has choked the seeds of 
virtue in many a promising mind. — Some parts of the ship and cargo were se-. 
cured, but neither the sailors nor the'captain was saved. — Whether one person 
or more was concerned in the business, does not appear. — Was the glebe or the 
maps injured by the accident .' — Either the driver, the horses, or carriage, was 
out of order. — Both of the scholars, or one of them at least, was present at the 
transaction. 

Note 6, under rule xiv. 1 shall walk out to-day unless it rains. — 

Though he falls, he shall not be utterly cast dovni. — Although he were thy 
friend, he did not justify thy conduct. — ^\Vas I to enumerate all her virtues, it 
would look like flattery. — Though the fact be extraordinary, it certainly did 
happen. — No one engages in that business, unless he aims at reputation. 

Note 8, under rule xiv. Solid peace and contentment consist neither in 



beauty or riches. — -.This writing is not as good as that. — The task is so great as I 
fear I cannot perform it. — Though he was rich, but for our sakcs he became 
poor. — Whether they will consent to the proposal, nor reject it, is not yet 
known. — The place is not as pleasant as we expected. 

Note 2, under rule xviii. We have done no more than it was our duty 

to have done. — I always intended to have rewarded my son according to his 
merit. — I intended to have written by the last mail. — I found my friend m much 
better circumstances than I expected to have found him. — George expected to 
have received an answer last week. — These enemies of Christianity wer^ con- 
fbnnded, whilst they were. expecting to have found an opportunity to have be- 
trayed its author. — The prisoner was acquitted by the court, although he was 
supposed, by many, to be concerned in the plot in which he was implicated, and 
which has so happily exploded. — It would have given me great satisfaction to 
relieve him from that distressed situation. — To be censured by him, would have 
proved an insuperable discouragement. — It would have afforded me still greater 
pleasure, to receive his approbation at an earlier period : but to receive it at all, 
wtw a credit to me. 



Instances of false ^Syntax, promiscuously di^osed. 

V rwoE and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these are 
wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences.— Time and chance hap- 
pBTMJth to all men ; but every person do not perceive whom it is that govern 
tboge powerful causes. — The active mind of man, never or seldom rests satisfied 
with their present condition, howsoever prosperous. — Habits must bo acquired 
of temperance and of self-denial, that we may be able to resist pleasure, and to 
•"wJore pain, when either of them interfere with our duty.— The error of resting 
wholly on faitli, or on works, is one of those seductions wliich most easily mis'- 



feed upon, many a heavy, and many a comfortless day he mustnecessarily pass.- 
I cannot jdeld to such dishonourable conduct, neither at the )resent moment of 
difficulty, nor, I trust, under no circumstance whatever.— iThemistocles con- 
cealed the enterprises of Pausanius, either thinking it base t| betray the secrets 
trusted to his confidence, or imagined it impossible for suchdangerous and iU- 
concertod schemes to take effect. — Pericles gained such an! ascendant over the 
minds of the Athenians, that he might be said tc^ attain a njonarchical power in 
Athens. — Christ did applaud the liberality of the poor widqv, who he had seen 
casting her two mites in the treasury. — A multiplicity of Ittle kind offices, in 
persons frequently conversant with each other, are the tarn of society and of 
friendBhip, — To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek re- 
venge, is the duty of a Christian. — If a man profess a regard for the duties of 
religion, and neglect that of morality, that man's religion if vain. — Affluence 
might give us respect, in the eyes of the vulgar, but will notrecommend us to 
tlie wise and good. — The polite, accomplislicd libertine, is butmiserable amidst 
all his pleasures : the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him. — The 
cheerful and the gay, when v.'armod by pleasure and by mirth, 'ose that sobriety 
and that self-denial, which is essential to the support of virtve. — I knew thou 
wert not slow to hear the requests of thy obedient children.— How much real 
virtue and merit are exposed to suffer the hardships of a stormy life ! — This is 
one of the duties which requires peculiar circiJmspection. — Mor5 complete hap- 
piness than that I have described, seldom falls to the lot of mortals. — There are 
principles in man, which ever have, and ever will inclme him to offend. — 
Whence have tlisre arose such a great variety of opinions and tenets in reli- 
gion ^'- — Its stature is less than that of a man ; but its strength and agility much 
greater. — They that honour me, them will I honour. — He summonses me to attend, 
and I must summons the others. — Then did the officer lay hold of him, and exe- 
cuted him immediately. — Who is that person whom I saw you introduce, and 
present him to the duke ? — I offer observations that a long and chequered pil- 
grimage have enabled me to make on man. — Every church and sect of people 
have a set of opinions peculiar to themselves. — May thou as well as me, be meek, 
patient, and forgiving. — These men were under high obligations to have adhered 
to their friend in eyerj situation of life. — Their exar.iple, their influence, their 

fortune, every talent they possess, dispenses blessings on all around them 

When a string of such sentences succeed one another, the effect is disagreeable. 
— I have lately been in Gibraltar, and have seen the commander in chief — Pro- 
priety of pronunciation is, the giving to every word the sound which the politest 
usage of the language appropriates to it. — The book is printed very neat, and 
on a fine wove paper. — The fables of the ancients are, many of them, highly ui- 
structive. — He resembled one of those solitary animals, that has been forced 
from its forest to gratify human curiosity. — There is not, nor ought not to be,, 
such a thing as constructive treason. — He is a new created knight, and his dig- 
nity sets awKward on him. — Hatred or revenge are things deserving of censure, 
wherever they are found to exist. — If you please to employ your thoughts on 
that subject, you would easily conceive our miserable condition. — His speech 
contains one of the grossest and infamousest calumnies which ever was uttered, f 
—A too great variety of studies dissipate and wealten the mind. — Those two au-/l 
thors have each of them their merit. — James was resolved to not indulge himse/ 
in such a cruel amusement. — The not attending to this rule, is the source (/'" 
very common error. — Calumny and detraction are sparks, wliich if you do !'-''• 
blow, they will go out of themselves. — Clelia is a vain woman, whom, if tVf do 
not flatter, she will be disgusted. — That celebrated work was nearly tprt ;6ars 
published, before its importance was at all understood. — Ambition is so Usitiable 
that it will malie any sacrifices to attain its objects. — A great mass- ''. rocks 
thrown together by the hand of nature with wildness and confusioR ■^'ri'^c the 
mind with more grandeur, than if they were adjusted to one jnotfcrf with the 
accuratest symmetry. 

Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense. 
Lies in three words, health, peace, and compoten'*- 

Having thus began to throw of tlie restraints of reas^j ''? was soon hurried 
into deplorable excesses.- Those arts have enlightened «"d will enlighten, every 
person who shall attentively study them.— Wlien we succeed in our plans, its 
not to be attributed always to ourselves; the aid ^f others often promote the 
end, and claim our acknowledgment.— Their inten<"ns were good ; but wanting 
prudence, they mist the mark for which they aii»e''— ^ '>ave "ot, nor shall not 
consent to a proposal so unjust.— Wo have subjo(tod ourselves to much exjionse, 
that thou may be well educated.— This tiontyin^ made at carl Moreton the 
governor's castle.— Bo especially careftd that Hju g'vest no oflcnce to the aged 
or helpless.— The business was no sooner opc«od, but it was cordially acquiesced 
in.— As to his general conduct, h« deservcdpun''il™eiit as much, or more than 
his companion: He left a son of a singiilap«liaracter, and behaved so ill that he 
was put in prison.— If he does but approv* my endeavours, it will bo an iiinplo 
reward.- 1 he the favour of your ncccF<anco of a copy of a view of the manu- 
factories of the West Pviding of the coiWty of York.— I intended to have written 
the letter, before he lu-ged me to it ; xnd, therefore, he has not all the merit of 
it.— All the power of ridir-ule, aided by the desertion of friends, and the iliiiu- i 






I 



48 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



nution of his estate, were not able to shake his principles. — ^In his conduct was 
treachery, an! in his words, faithless professions. — Though the measure be mys- 
terious, it is worthy of attention. — Be solicitous to aid such deserving persons, 
who appear t( be destitute of friends. — Ignorance, or the want of light, produce 
sensuality, ccetousness, and those violent contests with others about trifles, 
which occasiois so much misery and crimes in the world. — He will one day reap 
the reward of his labour, if he is diligent and attentive. Until that period 
comes, let him do contented and patient. — To the resolutions which we have, 

upon due consieration, once adopted as rules of conduct, let us adhere firmly. 

He has little mire of the great man besides the title. — Though he was my supe- 
rior in knowledffi, he would not have thence a right to impose his sentiments. 

That picture of he emperor's, is a very exact resemblance of him. — How happy 
are HiB virtuous,who can rest on the protection of the powerful arm who made 
the earth and tht heaven ! — Prosperity and adversity may be improved equally: 
both the one andtlie other proceeds from the same author. — He acted conform- 
able with his instuctions, and carmot be censured justly. — The orators did not 
forget to enlarge hemselves on so popular a subject. — Tlie language of Divine 
Providence to theezertions of all human agents, is, " Hitherto shalt thou come, 
and no further.'— Idle persoijs imagine, howsoever deficient they be in point of 
duty, they consultit least their own satisfaction. —Good as the cause is, it is one 
from which nxmibira are deserted. — Every thing we here enjoy, change, decay, 
and come to an enl. All float on the surface of the river, which is running to 
a boundless ocean, with a swift current. — The winter has not been as severe as 
we expected it to have been. — Temperance, more than medicines, are the 
proper means o| curing many diseases. — They understand the practical part 
better than him ; but he is much better acquainted with the theory than them. 
— When we hav^ once drawn the line, by intelligence and precision, between 
our duty and sin| the line we ought on no occasion to transgress. — All those dis- 
tinguished by estraordinary talents, have extraordinary duties to perform.— No 
person could sp^k stronger on this subject, nor behave nobler, than our young 
advocate for the cause of toleration. — His conduct was so provoking, that many 
will condemn lam, and a few will pity him. — The people's happiness is the 
statesman's hoiiour.— We are in a perilous situation. On one side, and the other, 
dangers meet us ; and each extreme shall be pernicious to virtue. — Several pic- 
tures of the Sardinian king were transmitted to France. — When I last saw him, 
he had grovni considerably. — If we consult the improvement of mind, or the 
health of body, it is well known exercise is the great instrument for promoting 
both. — ^If it were them who acted so ungratefully, they are doubly in fault. — 
Whether virtue promotes our interest or no, we must adhere to her dictates. — 
We should be studious to avoid too much indulgence, as well as restraint, in our 
management of children.— 'No hmnan happiness is so complete, as does not con- 
tain some imperfection. — His father cannot hope for this success, unless his son 
gives better proofs of genius, or applies himself with indefatigable labour. — The 
house framed a remonstrance, where they spoke with great freedom of the king's 
prerogative. — The conduct \yhich has been mentioned, is one of those articles 
which seduces men most easily, under appearance of benevolence. — This is the 
person who we are so much obliged to, arid who we expected to have seen, when 
the favour was conferred. — He is a person of great property, but does not pos- 
sess the esteem of his neighbours. — They were solicitous to ingratiate with 
those, who it was dishonourable to favour. — The great diversity which takes 
place among men, is not owing to a distinction that nature made in their original 
powers, as much as to the superior diligence, with which some have improved 
those powers beyond others. — While we are unoccupied in what is good, evil is 
at hand continually. — Not a creature is there that moves, nor a vegetable that 
grows, but what, when minutely examiaed, furnish materials of pious admira- 

Ition. — What can be the reason of the committee having delayed this business .'' — 
I know not whether Charles was the author, but I understood it to be he. — A 
good and well-cultivated mind, is far more preferable than rank or riclies. — 
Charity to the poor, when it is governed by knowledge and prudence, there are 
no persons who will not admit it to be a virtue. — His greatest concern, and 
highest enjoyment, were to be approved in the sight of his Creator. — Let us not 
I'M, our hearts on such a mutable, such an unsatisfying world. — When we see 
"*^i men to be honoured and prosperous in the world, it is some discouragement 
to\i4,ie — Tjjg furniture was all purchased at Wentworth's the joiner's. — Every 
menb-r of the body, every bone, joint, and muscle, lie exposed to many disor- 
ders ; aid the greatest prudence or precaution, or the deepest skill of the physi- 
cian, afv-ot sufficient to prevent them. — It is right said, that though faitli justify 
us, yet w.)rks laust justify our faith. — If an academy is established for the culti- 
vation 01 o^v language, let them stop the license of translators ; whose idleness 
and ignoran^j if ^ ijg suffered to proceed, will reduce us to babble a dialect of 
t rench. It ligf great consequence that a teacher firmly believes both the truth 
and importanct of ijiogQ principles which he inculcates upon others ; and that 
he not only spec^J&yygjy believes them, but has a lively and serious feeling of 
them.— It IS not the ikitgring, or the hearing certain words, tliat constitute tlie 
worship of the AlmigM, tt is the heart that praises, or prays. If the heart 
accompany not the words»hat are spoken, we ofi-er a sacrifice of fools.— Noitlier 
flatter or contemn the ricl or the great.— He has travelled much, and passed 
through many stormy seas .^d lands.— You must be sensible that thejc is, and 
can he no other person but i.e, who could give the information desired— To bo 
patient, resigned, and thankl,!, under afflictions and disappointments, demon- 
strate genuine piety.— Alvarez, ^vas a man of corrupt principles, and of detestable 
conduct ; and, wliat is still wot*., gloried in his shame.— As soon as the sense of 
a bupreme Bomg is lost, so soon Jie great check is taken off which keep under 
restraint the passions of men. M-an desires, low pleasures, takes place of tlie 
^u^^^Ij"^!. ^H "°^'®' sentiments which reason and religion inspires.— We 
should be careful not to follow the example of many pers'ons, to censure the 
opinions, manners, and customs of othtrs, merely because they arc foreignlo us. 



— Steady appUcation, as well as genius and abilities, are necessary to produce 
eminence. — There is in that seminary, several students considerably skilled in 
mathematical knowledge. — If Providence clothe the grass of the field, and shel- 
ters and adorns the flowers, that every where grows wild amongst it, will he not 
clothe and protect his servants and children much more ? — We are too often 
hurried with the violence of passion, or with the allurements of pleasure. — 
High hopes, and florid views, is a great enemy to tranquilUty. — Tear after year 
steal something from us ; till the decaying fabric totters of itself, and crumbles 
at length into dust. -I intended to have finished the letter before the bearer call- 
ed, that he might not have been detained ; but I was prevented by company. — 
George is the most learned and accomplished of all the other students, that be- 1 
long to the seminary. — This excellent and well-written treatise, with others that ! 
might be mentioned, were the foundation of his love of study. — There can be no 
doubt.but that the pleasures of the mind excel those of sense. — Many would 
exchange gladly their honours, beauty, and riches, for that more quiet and hum- 
bler station, which thou art now dissatisfied with, — Though the scene was a very 
affecting one, Louis showed a little emotion on the occasion. — The climate of 
England is not so pleasant as those of France, Spain, or Italy. — Much of the good 
and evil that happens to us in this world, are owing to apparently undesigned 
and fortuitous events ; but it is the Supreme Being which secretly directs and 
regulates all things. — To despise others on account of their poverty, or to value 
ourselves for our wealth, are dispositions highly culpable. — This task was the 
easier performed, from the cheerfulness with which he engaged in it.— She la- 
mented the unhappy fate of Lucretia, who seemed to her another name for 
chastity. — He has not yet cast off all the regard for decency ; and that is the 
most can be advanced in his favour. — The girls school was better conducted for- 
merly than the boys. — The disappointments he has met with, or the loss of hia^ 
much-loved friend, has occasioned a total derangement of his mental powers. — 
The concourse of people were so great, that with difficulty we passed throi^h 
them. — All the women, children, and treasure, which remained in the city, fell 
under the victor's power. — They have already made great progress in their 
studies, and, if attention and diligence continues, will soon fulfil the expectations 
of their friends. — It is amazing his propensity to this vice, against every principle 
of interest and honour. — These kind of vices, though they inhabit the upper 
circles of life, are not less pernicious, than those we meet with amongst the low- 
est of men. — He acted agreeable to the dictates of prudence, though he were in 
a situation exceeding delicate. — If I had known the distress of my friend, it 
would be my duty, and it certainly would have given me pleasure, to reUeve 
him. — They admired the countryman's, as they called him, candour and upright- 
ness. — The new set of curtains did not correspond to the old pair of blinds. — The 
tutor commends him for being more studious than any other pupils of the school 

Two principles in human nature reign. 
Self-love to urge, and reason to restrain : 
Nor that a good, nor this a bad we call ; 
Each works its end, to move or govern all. 
Temperance and exercise, howsoever little they may be regarded, they are 
the best means of preserving liealth. — He has greatly blessed me ; yes, even I, 
who, loaded with Idndncss, hath not been sufficiently grateful. — No persons feel 
the distresses of others, so much as those that have experienced distress them- 
selves. — Disgrace not yonr station, by that grossness of sensuality, that levity of 
dissipation, or that insolence of rank, which bespeak a little mind. — A circle, a 
square, a triangle, or a hexagon, please the eye by their regularity, as beautifiil 
figures. — His condutit was equally unjust as dishonourable. — Though, at first, he 
begun to defend himself, yet, v/hen the proofs appeared against him, he dared 
net any longer to contend. — Many persons will not believe but what they are 
free from prejudices. — The pleasure or pain of one passion, differ from those of 
another. — The court of Spain, who gave the order, were not aware of the oon- 
sequence. — If the acquisitions he has made, and qualified liim to be a useful 
member of society, should have been misapplied, he will be highly culpable. — 
There was much spoke and wrote on each side of the question ; but I have chose 
to take part with neither. — Was there no bad men in the world, who vex and 
distress the good, they might appear in the light of harmless innocence ; but 
could have no opportunity for displaying fidelity and magnanimity, patience and 
fortitude.— The most ignorant, and the most savage tribes of men, when they 
have looked round on the earth, and on the lieavens, could not avoid ascribing 
their origin to some mvisible, designing cause, and felt a propensity to adore 
their Creator. — Let us not forget, that something more tlian gentleness and 
modesty, something more than complacency of temper and affability of manners, 
are requisite to I'orm a worthy man, or a true Christian. — One of the first, and 
the most conimcin extreme in mora! conduct, is placing all virtue in justicie, or 
in generosity. — It is im inflexible regard to principle, which has ever marked the 
characters of them who distinguished tliemselves eminently in public life ; who 
patronized the' cause of justice against powerful oppressors; in critical times, 
have supported tlie falling rights and liberties of men ; and reflected honour on 
tJieir nation and country. — When it is with regard to trifles, that diversity or 
contrariety of opinions show themselves, it is childish in the last degree, if this 
becomes the ground of estranged affection. When, from such a cause, there 
arise any breach of friendship, human weakness is discovered then m a mortify- 
ing light. In matters of serious moment, the sentiments of the best and worthiest 
might vary from that of their friends, according as their lines of life diverge, or as 
tlieir temper, and habits of tliought, presents objects under different points of view. 
But with Citndid and liberal minds, unity of affection still will bo preserved. 
While all our hearts, and all our BOngB, 

Join t' admire the feast, 
Each of us cry, with thankful tongues, 
■Lord, why was I a guest.'" 



iilHiiil 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



49 



APPENDIX. 



VERSIFICATION. 

Veksification, or Poetry, is a species of composition, made according to 
certain harmonious measures, or proportions of sound. 

Rhyme is that kind of poetry in which the terminating sound of one line, 
agrees with that of ajiother ; as, 
Go tell my son said he, 
All thou hast heard of me. 
Blank verse, like other poetry, is measured, but does not rhyme ; as, 
All on earth is shadow •, all beyond 
Is substance : the reverse is folly's creed. 

OF POETICAL FEET. 

A certain number of syllables, connected, form a foot. They arc called feet, 
because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along through the verse 
in a measured pace : and it is necessary that the syllables, which mark this regu- 
lar movement of the voice, should, in some way, be distinguished from the others. 
Feet are all reducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three 
Byllables; viz. _ _ 

■' • ~ ■ A Dactyl - - - 

An Amphibrach « - - 
An Anapaest ~ - - 
A Tribrach >'•''-' 



A Trochee - *' 
An Iambus ~ ~ 
A Spondee - ~ 
A Pyrrhick " •" 
A Trochee has the first syllable accented^ and the last unaccented ; as hatefiil, 
pSttish. 

Restless mortals toil for nought ; 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought 
An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented ; as, delay, 
behold. 

Ajid mSy at last my weary age. 
Find out the peacefiil hermitage. 
A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, a high tree, the pale 
mOon. 

See the bold youth strain up the thrfiatnlng steep. 
Old time brings man to his long home. 
A Pyrrhick has both the words or syllables unaccented ; as, on th6 tall tree. 
In 5 small stream, by the side of a mountain, 
"We bath'd with delight. 
A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the last two unaccented ; as, con- 
quSrOr, horriblg. 

From thfi low pleastires of this ftUen nature, 
Rise we to higher, &c. 
An £mphibrach has the first and last syllable unaccented, and the middle one 
accented ; as, delightful, amazing. 

The piece you say is incorrect, why take It, 
I'm all submission, what you'd have it make it. 
An Anavmst has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last accented ; as, 
TacfimmGde, c5ntravene. 

May I govfirn my passions with absClfite sway. 
And grow wiser and better as life fades away. 
A Trihrach has all its syUablea imaccented ; as, unpardonable, innumerable. 

And rolls impetiiouB to the plain. 
Some of these feet may be denominated prJ7»cJpo/ feet ; as pieces of poetry may 
be wholly, or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the Trochee, Iambus, 
Dactyl and Anapest. They are capable also of numerous variations by mixing 
them with each other, and by the admission of the secondary feet. The Spondee, 
Pyrrhick, Amphibrach, and Tribrach, arc secondary feet. 

Measure, in poetry, is the number of syllables or feet contained in a line. The 
I measures that are most in use, are those often, eight, and seven syllables: but 
lithe lambick, Trochaick, and Anapcestick verse, is aometimes very short, and 
aomctimes long meaiure. 

OF PAUSES. 

Tbebk are two kinds of poetical pauses — one for the sense, called the sen- 
tetUvd pause, and known to us by the names of comma, semicolon, &c. — the 
other for the melody, called the harmonick pause. These are perfectly distinct 
from each other. 

The harmonick pause may be subdivided into the final pause, and the cmsural 
panBe. These sometinies coincide with the sententisJ pause, and sometimes have 
an independent state ; that is, exist whpre there is no stop in the sense. 

The final pause takes place at the end of the line, closes the verse, marks the 
Bteoenre, preserves the melody, without interfering with the sense, and alone, on 
many occasions, marks the difference between prose and verse : which will bo 
evident from the following arrangement of a few poetical lines. 



" Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that forbidden tree, whose mor' 
tal taste brought death into the world, and all our wo, with loss of Eden, till one 
greater Man restore us, and regain the blissful seat, sing, heavenly muse !" 

A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was verse ; but 
would take it for poetical prose. By properly adjusting the final pause, we shaD 
restore the passage to its true state of verse. 

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 

Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal tas^i 

Brought death into the world, and all ov^^o, 

With loss of Eden, till one greater Man 

Restore us, and regain the blissful seat. 

Sing, heavenly muse ! 
These examples show the necessity of reading verse, in such a manner, as to 
make every line sensible to the ear ; for, what is the use of melody, or for what 
end has the poet composed in verse, if, in reading his lines, we suppress his num- 
bers, by omitting the final pause ; and degrade tnem, by our pronunciation, into 
mere prose .' As this pause is made only by the suspension of the voice, not by a 
change, it prevents that monotony, that sameness of note at the end of lines, 
which, however pleasing to a rude, is disgusting to a delicate ear. • 

The cmsural pause divides the line into equal, or unequal parts, falling gene- 
rally on the 4th, 5th, or 6th syllable, in heroick verse. 

Exemplification of the CcBsural Pauses : [ " ] 
The silver eel," in shining volumes roll'd. 
The yellow carp," in scales bedropp'd with gold. 
Round broken columns," clasping ivy twin'd. 
O'er heaps of ruins," stalk'd the stately hind. 
Oh, say, what stranger cause," yet unexplor'd, 
Could make a gentle belle" reject a lord. 
The line is sometimes divided into four parts, by the introduction of what is 
called a dcmi-casura ; thus: 

Warms' in the sun," refreshes' in the breeze. 
Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the trees; 
Lives' through all life," extends' through all extent. 
Spreads,' imdivided," operates,' unspent. 



RHETORICK AND ORATORY. 

Rhetorick, or oratory, is the art of speaking justly, methodically, and ele- 
gantly, upon any subject ; so as to instruct, persuade, and please. A speech 
made according to the rules of this art, is called an Oration, and the speaker an 
Orator. The word rhctorick is derived from a Greek word [Pijropiio)] of the 
same signification. 

A good orator must be eminent for invention, disposition, memory, gesture, and 
elocution. 

Invention is the talent of forming, or selecting, such arguments, for the proving 
or illustrating of a subject, as will move the passions, and conciliate or instruct 
the minds of the hearers. 

Disposition is the arrangement of the arguments, in the most orderly and ad- 
vantageous manner. 

Gesture is the natural, or the artificial, accommodation of the attitude to the 
several parts of a discourse ; — the " suiting of the action to the word." 

Elocution is the art of expressing our ideas in a clear and distinct manner, and 
in harmonious, appropriate language. Elocution comprises, 

1st. Composition; or the grammatical arrangement, plainness, and propriety 
of language. 

2d. Elegance; which consists in the purity, perspicuity, and politeness of lan- 
guage, and is gained chiefly by studying the most correct writers, conversing 
with polite, well-informed people, and making frequent and careful essays in 
composition. 

3d. Dignity; which adorns language with sublime thoughts,rhetorical figureB,&c. 
An oration has five parts ; the exordium, narration, confirmation, refutation, 
and peroration. 

The exordium, or preamble, is the beginning of the discourse ; serving to gain 
the good opinion of the hearers ; to secure their attention, and to give them a 
general notion of the subject. It ought to be clear, modest, and not too prolix. 

The narration is the recital of the facts as they happened ; or, as tliey are 
supposed to have happened. It ought to be perspicuous, probable, concise, and 
(on most subjects) entertaining. 

The confirmation is the proving by argument, example, or authority, the truth 
of the propositions advanced in the narration.* 

The refutation, or confutation, is the destroying of the arguments of the an- 
tagonist ; by denying what is apparently false, detecting some flaw in the rea- 
soning, or showing the invaUdity of the proof. It should bo sharp and lively. 

The veroration, or conclusion, is a recapitulation of the principal arguments, 
concisely summed up with new force av.d weight ; in order to excite the feeling 
of hatred or pity. 

* Rhetoricians advise us to place our Htrongmt argamenta in the froat, the weakest In the mid- 
dle, and to reserve some of the beiit till the close. 



50 



GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 



TROPES, OR FIGURES OF SPEECH. 



Tropes, or %ures of speech, always denote some departure from simplicity of 
expression J as, "A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity." This 
is simple language : but when I say — " To the upright there ariseth light in 
darkness," I express the same sentiment in a figurative, and in a more impressive 
and vivid manner. Figures, or tropes, greatly enliven and enrich language. 

The following are some of the principal figures — persanification, apostrophe, 
hyperbole, simile, metaphor, allegory, irony, climax, metonymy, and synecdoche. 
Personification bestows life and action upon things inanimate ; as, " The earth 
thirsts for rain." 

Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old ocean smiles. 
Behold, the morn, in russet mantle clad, 
Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hUls. 
Apostrophe is a figure nearly allied to personification. It consists in bestowing 
an ideal presence upon real, cither dead or absent. We address them as if they 
stood before us, listening t(^i||e overflow of our passions ; as, 

" Retire ; for it is night i^love, and the dark winds sigh in your hair. Retire 
to the hall of my feast, and think of the times that are past ; for I will not return 
till the storm of war is gone." — Ossian, 

■ Weep on the rocks of the roaring winds, O maid of Inistore ; bend thy fair 



fn.'Tfr^T -P"^' ^^^ if'"*- ^""'i^^ '•^"^' ' ^^^ "ff''^ ^°^ the cause : the eoTUams 
for the contained ; or the sign for the thing signified: as, «woi« 

should be respected;" « The kettle boifs,"-i. e. the water in the^ettle; "Si 
addressed the chair,"— i. e. the person in the chair; " She assumed the sceptre."— 
1. e. the royal authority. ^ * 

A Synecdoche puts a part for the whole, or the whole for a part : as. 

While o'er the roof, [house] loud thunders break. 
" By the sweat of his brow, earns he his bread," [food, clothing, «Skc.] . 

COMPOSITION. 

Composition is the forming of words together in grammatical order. 

Perspicuity is a fundamental quality in every piece of correct composition : a 
quahty so essential that nothing can atone for the want of it. We are pleased 
with an author, just in proportion as he frees us froni all fatio-ue in searchino- for 
his meaning, and carries us, as upon the swell of a sweet flowing style, witSout 
embarrassment or confusion, through his subject. 

Perspicuity and accuracy of expression, require attention to the miritv, pro- 
pnety, and precision o£langua.ge. r riir 

PuriUj of language consists in the use of such words and constructions as belong 




The Hyperbole consists in magnifying or diminishing an object beyond reality. 

Hyperbole soars high, or creeps too slow; 
, Exceeds the truth, things wonderful to show. 

He touch' d the skies. A snail don't crawl so slow. 

1 found her on the floor. 

In all the storm of grief; yet beautiful ; 
Pouring forth tears, at such a lavish rate, 
That, were the world on fire, they might have drown'd 
The wrath of Heaven, and quench'd the mighty ruin. — Lee. 
"He was owner of a piece of ground not larger than a Lacedemonian letter." 
A simile is a comparison, by which any thing is illustrated. This figure, 
equally familiar and beautiful, discovers resemblances, real or imaginary, be- 
tween actions, which, in their general nature, are dissimilar ; as, 

" The ravisiok of Caryl was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant 
and mournful to the soul." — Ossian. 

She never told her love ; 

But let concealment, like a worm i' the bud, i 

Feed on her damask cheek : She pined in thought : 
And, with a green and yellow melancholy. 

She sat, like Patience on a monument, smiling at grief. — Shake sp. 
A metaphor'^ is the putting of the name of one thing for that of another ; so 
as to comprise a simile in a single word : or, it is the application of a word to a 
use, to which, in its original import, it cannot be put ; as, 
Wallace was a thunderbolt of war ; 
Fingal, the gale of Spring. 
A hero resembles a lion, and is often compared to one. Such a comparison is 
a simile : but imagine a hero to be a lion, instead of only resembling one, and 
you have a metaphor. 

" Like a mighty pillar, doth this one man uphold the state." [This is a simile.] 
"He is the sole pillar of this ponderous state." [A metaphor.] 

An Allegory is a continued metaphor ; — or, it is the representation of one thing 
by another, tliat resembles it, and that is made to stand for it. 
An allegory is a chain of tropes ; — 
I've passed the shoals ; fair gales now swell my hopes. 
" Venus grows cold witliout Ceres and Bacchus." i. e. — love grows cold with- 
out bread and wine. 

There cannot be a more beautiful and correct allegory than the following ; in 
which the people are represented under the image of a vine. 

" Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out the heathen, and 
planted it : thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, 
and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the 
boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs unto the 
seas, and her branches unto the river. Why hast thoft, then, broken down her 
hedges, so that all tliey who pass by the way do pluck her ? The boar out of the 
wood doth waste it ; and the wild beast of the field doth devour it. Return, we 
beseech thee, O God of hosts ; look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this 
vine." — 80th Psalm. 

Irony is a mode of speech in whidh the meaning is contrary to the words. 
Irony, dissembling with an air. 
Means otherwise than words declare. 
" Cry aloud ; for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a 
journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked." — 1 Kings, xviii. 27. 
A Climax is a figure by which tlie sentence gradually rises. 

A climax, 'tis said, by gradation ascends. 

They were my countrymen, my neighbours, my friends. 9. Pleasing ideas and forcible reasoning can hardly bo transmitted to thendai 

" Franco, amidst the ferocity of successive factions ; unaided by a single friend ; by means of narsii and disagreeable sounds : particular attention ought theicftn 
assailed, on all sides, by the strongest energies of surrounding kingdoms, pre- to be paid to ihc harmony and easy flow of the Iwiguage. 
served her territory unuljured." 

■* yoreign and learned wovde, unless where nece^tsitvreoirirpAttipm ahnni.! f^.i»A.ft.» . ._ ^ 
• A metaphor differs from a simile in form only, not in substance : comparison is the founda- into our composition. On some occaeinns, they cive an annmViirui nV»i.vn.i!^^It j i-^ 
tion of both. style : but they often render it stifl-and aplwcmly forced. or elevation and Ojgnilj of 

THE END. 



Propriety of language consists in the selection of such words and phrases as 
are best suited to express the ideas we mean to convey by them. 

IN ORDER TO PRESERVE PROPRIETY IN O0R LANGUAGE, WE MUST 
BE CAREFUL, 

1. To avoid the injudicious use of technical terms. 

2. To avoid low expressions; as. Topsy-turvy, hurly-burly, pell-msll, &0. 
6. l o supply words that are wanting. 

4. Not to use the same word too frequently, nor in different senses in the mma 
sentence. 

5. To avoid equivocal or ambiguous words. 

6. To use no unintelhgible or inconsistent words or phrases. 
7 To employ only such words and plirases as are best adapted to the ideas we 

wish to communicate, and most expressive of them 

Precision requires the retrenching of all superfluities ; or the pruning of our 
language, so as to exhibit neither more nor less than the exact copv of the idea 
we mean to communicate. ■' ^^^ 

The words we use to express oui ideas may be faulty in three respects: m. 

sem'bles it^ "^^^ ^''^''^'' '''^^ "^^'"^ "^^ "'^®"'^' ^"* ^^^ °t^®'' ^ ^ 
2. They may express that idea, but not fully and completely 
a They may express that idea together with something more than is intended. 
Note. The great source of a loose style, in opposition to precision, is the in- 
judicious use or words termed synonymous. They are called synonymous, be- 
cause they agree m expressing one principal idea; but for the most part, if not 
always, they express it with some diversity of circumstance. ■.,«*»» 

SENTENCES. 

Remark 1. Sentences, in general, should neither be very lomr nor verv short 
Long sentences require a laboured attention in order to our cfearly perceiviiur 
the connexion and sense ; while very short ones, on the contrary, break the co^ 
nexion of tliouglit, and injure the sense. Yet, occasionally, both mav bo intro- 
duced with advantage. ■' »*"•*"- 

2. A long train of sentences constructed in the same manner, and with the 
same number of members, tires the ear, and therefore should never be allowed 
in any composition. But a judiciov^. mixture of periods, longer and shorter 
and variously constructed, gratifies the ear, and gives force and animation to the' 
style. 

3 In the arrangement of a sentence, the words or members, most clearhr fb- 
iated, should be placed as near to each otJier as possible, and so as to maka their 
mutual relation manifest. 

4. Several circumstances should not be crowded together, but interspcrsed^in 
different parts of the sentence, connected with the principal words on which 
they depend. 

5. Never press into one sentence, things wliich have so little connexion as fto 
admit of being divided into two or three. Long, involved, intricate senteiwes 
are great blemishes in couipoaition. 

6. During tlie course of the sentence, change the scene as often as pwBible : 
and keep clear ot all unnecessary parentheses. 

7. The several vyords and members of which a sentence is composed, shonU 
be so arranged as tliat each may have its due weight and force, ajid the whole 
sense be brougiit out to tlie best advantage. 

8. A weaker assertion or proposition should never come after a stroneer one 
and, when a sentence consists of two, or more members, the longeS should 
generally come last ; as, " Hhcn our pa^^sums have forsaken vs, wo flatter era- 
selves with the behef that we have forsaken them." 



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